Electrostatic generator and Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux: Difference between pages
(Difference between pages)
Content deleted Content added
image added |
|||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
[[Image:Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux's marble sculpture 'Ugolino and his Sons', Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux's marble sculpture 'Ugolino and his Sons', Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
|||
An '''electrostatic generator''', or '''electrostatic machine''', is a mechanical device that produces ''[[static electricity]]'', or electricity at [[high voltage]] and low [[continuous current]]. The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying [[phenomenon]]. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of [[electricity]]. Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other) power to transform [[mechanical work]] into [[electric energy]]. They develop [[electrostatic]] [[electrical charge|charge]]s of opposite sign rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces. |
|||
[[Image:Jean-Baptiste_Carpeaux_La_Danse.jpg|thumb|right|400px|La Danse (The Dance), Opera Garnier in Paris]] |
|||
{{Commonscat}} |
|||
'''Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux''' ([[May 11]], [[1827]], [[Valenciennes]] –[[October 12]], [[1875]], [[Courbevoie]]) was a French sculptor and painter. His early studies were under [[François Rude]]. Carpeaux won the [[Prix de Rome]] in [[1854]], and moving to [[Rome]] to find inspiration, he there studied the works of [[Michelangelo Buonarroti|Michelangelo]], [[Donatello]] and [[Andrea del Verrocchio|Verrocchio]]. Staying in Rome from [[1854]] to [[1861]], he obtained a taste for movement and spontaneity, which he joined with the great principles of [[baroque art]]. In [[1861]] he made a bust of [[Mathilde Bonaparte|Princess Mathilde]], and this later brought him several commissions from [[Napoleon III]]. He worked at the pavilion of [[Flora (goddess)|Flora]], and the [[Opéra Garnier]]. His group La Danse (the Dance, [[1869]]), situated on the right side of the façade, was criticised as an offence to common decency. |
|||
==Description== |
|||
Electrostatic machines are used for generating high voltages, using either friction or electrostatic induction to accumulate electrical charges. Electrostatic generators are typically used in science classrooms to safely demonstrate electrical forces and high voltage phenomena. The potential differences achieved have been also used for a variety of practical applications (such as operating X-ray tubes, sterilization of food, and nuclear physics experiments). Electrostatic generators such as the [[Van de Graaff generator]], and variations as the [[Pelletron]] and the [[tandem generator]], also find use in physics research. |
|||
He never managed to finish his last work, the famous Fountain of the Four Parts of the Earth, on the Place Camille Jullian. He did finish the terrestrial globe, supported by the four figures of [[Asia]], [[Europe]], [[North America|America]] and [[Africa]], and it was [[Emmanuel Frémiet]] who completed the work by adding the eight leaping horses, the tortoises and the dolphins of the basin. |
|||
Electrostatic generators are of two kinds: friction machines, and influence machines. |
|||
== Sculptures by Carpeaux == |
|||
===Friction machines=== |
|||
====History==== |
|||
[[Image:Elektrisiermaschine.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Typical friction machine using a glass globe, common in the 18th century]] |
|||
* Ugolin et ses fils - [[Ugolino della Gherardesca|Ugolino]] and his Sons (1861, in the permanent collection of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]])[[http://www.insecula.com/oeuvre/photo_ME0000009025.html]] with versions in other museums including the [[Musée d'Orsay]] |
|||
[[Image:Electrostatic generator Teylers Museum.jpg|thumb|222px|Martinus van Marum's Electrostatic generator at [[Teylers Museum]]]] |
|||
* The Dance (commissioned for the [[Palais Garnier|Opera Garnier]]) |
|||
* Jeune pêcheur à la coquille - [[Naples|Neapolitan]] Fisherboy - in the [[Louvre]], [[Paris]] [[http://www.insecula.com/oeuvre/photo_ME0000034255.html]] |
|||
* Girl with Shell |
|||
* [[Antoine Watteau]] monument, [[Valenciennes]] |
|||
==Neapolitan Fisherboy== |
|||
Some electrostatic generators are called ''friction machines'' because of the [[friction]] in the generation process. A primitive form of frictional electrical machine was constructed around [[1663]] by [[Otto von Guericke]], using a rotating sulphur globe rubbed by hand. [[Isaac Newton]] suggested the use of a glass globe instead of a sulphur one ([[Opticks|Optics, 8th Query]]). F. Hawksbee improved the basic design. |
|||
Carpeaux submitted a plaster version of ''Pêcheur napolitain à la coquille'', the Neapolitan Fisherboy, to the [[French Academy]] while a student in [[Rome]]. He carved the marble version several years later, showing it in the Salon exhibition of 1863. It was purchased for [[Napoleon III]]'s empress, [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugènie]]. The statue of the young smiling boy was very popular, and Carpeaux created a number of reproductions and variations in marble and bronze. There is a copy, for instance, in the Samuel H. Kress Collection in the [[National Gallery of Art]] in [[Washington D.C.]] |
|||
Generators were further advanced when G. M. Bose of Wittenberg added a collecting conductor (an insulated tube or cylinder supported on silk strings). In [[1746]], Watson's machine had a large wheel turning several glass globes with a sword and a gun barrel suspended from silk cords for its prime conductors. J. H. Winkler, the professor of physics at [[Leipzig]], substituted a leather cushion for the hand. Andreas Gordon of Erfurt, a Scottish Benedictine monk, used a glass cylinder in place of a sphere. [[Jesse Ramsden]], in [[1768]], constructed a widely used version of a plate electrical generator. By [[1784]], the van Marum machine could produce voltage with either polarity. Also in 1784, Van Marum constructed a rather large electrostatic machine of high quality (currently on display at the [[Teylers Museum]] in the Netherlands). |
|||
Some years later, he carved the Girl with a Shell, a very similar study. |
|||
In [[1785]], N. Rouland constructed a silk belted machine which rubbed two grounded hare fur covered tubes. [[Edward Nairne]] developed an electrostatic generator in [[1787]] which introduced the ability to generate either positive or negative electricity, the first named being collected from the prime conductor carrying the collecting points and the second from the prime conductor carrying the cushion. The Winter machine possessed higher efficiency than earlier friction machines. In the [[1830s]], [[Georg Ohm]] possessed a machine similar to the van Marum machine for his research (which is now at the [[Deutsches Museum]], Munich, Germany). In [[1840]], the Woodward machine was developed from improving the Ramsden machine (placing the prime conductor above the disk(s)). Also in 1840, the Armstrong hydroelectric machine was developed and used steam as a charge carrier. |
|||
Carpeaux sought real life subjects in the streets and broke with the classical tradition. The Neapolitan Fisherboy's body is carved in intimate detail and shows an intricately balanced pose. Carpeaux claimed that he based the Neapolitan Fisherboy on a boy he had seen during a trip to [[Naples]]. |
|||
====Friction operation==== |
|||
The presence of [[surface charge]] imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. This surface charge imbalance, which leads to static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomena of [[contact electrification]] and the [[triboelectric effect]]. Rubbing two non-conductive objects generates a great amount of static electricity. This is not just the result of friction; two non-conductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing. Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces. Usually [[insulators]], e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge. Some examples of these substances are [[rubber]], [[plastic]], [[glass]], and [[pith]]. [[conductor (material)|Conductive]] objects in contact generate charge imbalance too, but retain the charges only if insulated. The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. Note that the presence of [[electric current]] does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from the [[corona discharge]], or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultaneously in the same system. |
|||
== |
==External links== |
||
====History==== |
|||
Frictional machines were, in time, gradually superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned above, namely, ''influence machines''. These operate by [[electrostatic induction]] and convert mechanical work into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial charge which is continually being replenished or reinforced. The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of [[Alessandro Volta|Volta]]'s ''[[electrophorus]]''. The electrophorus is a single-plate [[capacitor]] used to produce imbalances of [[electric charge]] via the process of [[electrostatic induction]]. Abraham Bennet, the inventor of the gold leaf [[electroscope]], described a "''doubler of electricity''" (Phil. Trans., 1787), as a device similar to the electrophorus, but that could amplify a small charge by means of manual operations with three insulated plates, in order to make it observable in an electroscope. [[Erasmus Darwin]], B. Wilson, G. C. Bohnenberger, and (later, 1841) J. C. E. Péclet developed various modifications of Bennet's device. In 1788, [[William Nicholson]] proposed his rotating doubler, which can be considered as the first rotating influence machine. His instrument was described as "an instrument which by turning a winch produces the two states of electricity without friction or communication with the earth". (Phil. Trans., 1788, p. 403) Nicholson later described a "spinning condenser" apparatus. |
|||
*[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=rs_display_res&critere=jean+baptiste+carpeaux&operator=AND&nbToDisplay=5&langue=fr A page on the official Louvre site giving access to some of Carpeaux's works (French language only)] |
|||
Others, including [[Tiberius Cavallo|T. Cavallo]] (who developed the "Cavallo multiplier", a charge multiplier using simple addition, in [[1795]]), [[John Read]], Charles Bernard Desormes, and [[Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette]], developed further various forms of rotating doublers. In 1798, The German scientist and preacher Gottlieb Christoph Bohnenberger, described the [[Bohnenberger machine]], along with several other doublers of Bennet and Nicholson types in a book. The most interesting of these were described in the "Annalen der Physik" (1801). [[Giuseppe Belli (physicist)|Giuseppe Belli]], in [[1831]], developed a simple symmetrical doubler which consisted of two curved metal plates between which revolved a pair of plates carried on an insulating stem. It was the first symmetrical influence machine, with identical structures for both terminals. This apparatus was similar to [[Lord Kelvin]]'s "replenisher" (1867). Lord Kelvin also devised a combined influence machine and electromagnetic machine, commonly called a [[mouse mill]], for electrifying the ink in connection with his [[siphon recorder]]. Lord Kelvin also developed, between [[1858]] and [[1867]], a water-drop electrostatic generator, which he called the "''[[water-dropping condenser]]''". |
|||
*[http://www.insecula.com/contact/A005511_oeuvre_1.html A page from insecula.com listing more views of Carpeaux's works (also in French;] it may be necessary to close an advertising window to view this page) |
|||
*[http://www.studiolo.org/MMA-Ugolino/Ugolino.htm A page analysing Carpeaux's ''Ugolino'', with numerous illustrations] |
|||
[[Category:French sculptors|Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste]] |
|||
In [[1860]], [[C. F. Varley]] patented a more modern type of influence machine. Between [[1864]] and [[1880]], [[Wilhelm Holtz|W. T. B. Holtz]] constructed and described a large number of influence machines which were considered the most advanced developments of the time. In one form, the [[Holtz machine]] consisted of a glass disk mounted on a horizontal axis which could be made to rotate at a considerable speed by a multiplying gear, interacting with induction plates mounted in a fixed disk close to it. In [[1865]], [[August Toepler|August J. I. Toepler]] developed an influence machine that consisted of two disks fixed on the same shaft and rotating in the same direction. In [[1868]], the [[Schwedoff machine]] had a curious structure to increase the output current. Also in 1868, several mixed friction-influence machine were developed, including the [[Kundt machine]] and the [[Carré machine]]. In [[1866]], the [[Piche machine]] (or [[Bertsch machine]]) was developed. In [[1869]], H. Julius Smith received the American patent for a portable and airtight device that was designed to ignite powder. Also in 1869, sectorless machines in Germany were investigated by [[Johann Christian Poggendorff|Poggendorff]]. |
|||
[[Category:1827 births|Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste]] |
|||
[[Category:1875 deaths|Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste]] |
|||
[[de:Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]] |
|||
The action and efficiency of influence machines were further investigated by [[F. Rossetti]], [[A. Righi]], and [[F. W. G. Kohlrausch]]. [[E. E. N. Mascart]], [[A. Roiti]], and [[E. Bouchotte]] also examined the efficiency and current producing power of influence machines. In [[1871]], sectorless machines were investigated by Musaeus. In [[1872]], [[Righi's electrometer]] was developed and was one of the first antecedents of the Van de Graaff generator. In [[1873]], Leyser developed the [[Leyser machine]], a variation of the Holtz machine. In [[1880]], [[Robert Voss]] (a Berlin instrument maker) devised a form of machine in which he claimed that the principles of Toepler and Holtz were combined. The same structure become also known as the ''Toepler-Holtz'' machine. In [[1878]], the British inventor [[James Wimshurst]] started his studies about electrostatic generators, improving the Holtz machine, in a powerful version with multiple disks. The classical ''[[Wimshurst machine]]'', that become the most popular form of influence machine, was reported to the scientific community by [[1883]], although revious machines with very similar structures were previously described by Holtz and Musaeus. In [[1885]], one of the largest-ever Wimshurst machines was built in England (it is now at the [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Chicago Museum of Science and Industry]]). In 1887, Weinhold modified the Leyser machine with a system of vertical metal bar inductors with wooden cylinders close to the disk for avoiding polarity reversals. [[M. L. Lebiez]] described the [[Lebiez machine]], that was essentially a simplified [[Voss machine]] (''L'Électricien'', April 1895, pp. 225-227). In 1894, Bonetti designed a machine with the structure of the Wimshurst machine, but without metal sectors in the disks. This machine is significantly more powerful than the sectored version, but it must usually be started with an externally-applied charge. |
|||
[[fr:Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]] |
|||
[[nl:Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]] |
|||
In [[1898]], the [[Pidgeon machine]] was developed with a unique setup by [[W. R. Pidgeon]]. In October 28 of that year, Pidgeon presented this machine to the Physical Society after several years of investigation into influence machines (beginning at the start of the decade). The device was later reported in the ''Philosophical Magazine'' (Dec. 1898, pg. 564) and the ''Electrical Review'' (Vol. XLV, pg. 748). A Pidgeon machine possesses fixed [[inductor]]s arranged in a manner that increases the [[electrical induction effect]] (and its electrical output is at least double that of typical machines of this type [except when it is overtaxed]). The essential features of the Pidgeon machine are, one, the combination of the rotating support and the fixed support for inducing charge, and, two, the improved insulation of all parts of the machine (but more especially of the generator's carriers). Pidgeon machines are a combination of a Wimshurst Machine and Voss Machine, with special features adapted to reduce the amount of charge leakage. Pidgeon machines excite themselves more readily than the best of these types of machines. In addition, Pidgeon investigated higher current "triplex" section machines (or "double machines with a single central disk") with enclosed sectors (and went on to receive British Patent 22517 (1899) for this type of machine). |
|||
[[pl:Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]] |
|||
[[pt:Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]] |
|||
Multiple disk machines and "triplex" electrostatic machines (generators with three disks) were also developed extensively around the [[turn of the century]]. In [[1900]], [[F. Tudsbury]] discovered that enclosing a generator in a metallic chamber containing [[compressed air]], or better, [[carbon dioxide]], the [[Electrical insulation|insulating properties]] of compressed gases enabled a greatly improved effect to be obtained owing to the increase in the breakdown voltage of the compressed gas, and reduction of the leakage across the plates and insulating supports. In [[1903]], [[Alfred Wehrsen]] patented an ebonite rotating disk possessing embedded sectors with button contacts at the disk surface. In [[1907]], [[Heinrich Wommelsdorf]] reported a variation of the Holtz machine using this disk and inductors embedded in celluloid plates (DE154175; "[[Wehrsen machine]]"). Wommelsdorf also developed several high-performance electrostatic generators, of which the best known were his "Condenser machines" (1920). These were multiple-disk machines, using disks with embedded sectors that were accessed at the edges. |
|||
[[zh:让-巴蒂斯·卡尔波]] |
|||
===Modern electrostatic generators=== |
|||
Electrostatic generators had a fundamental role in the investigations about the structure of matter, starting at the end of the 19th century. By the 1920's, it was evident that machines capable of generating greater voltage were needed. The ''[[Van de Graaff generator]]'' was developed, starting in [[1929]], at [[MIT]]. The first model was demonstrated in October [[1929]]. The basic idea was to use an insulating belt to transport electric charge to the interior of an insulated hollow terminal, where it could be discharged regardless of the potential already present on the terminal,that does not produce any electric field in its interior. The idea was not new, but the implementation using an electronic power supply to charge the belt was a fundamental innovation that turned the old machines obsolete. The first machine used a silk ribbon bought at a five and dime store as the charge transport belt. In [[1931]] a version capable of producing 1,000,000 volts was described in a patent disclosure. [[Nikola Tesla]] wrote a Scientific American article, "''Possibilities of Electro-Static Generators''" in 1934 concerning the Van de Graaff generator (pp. 132-134 and 163-165). Tesla stated, "''I believe that when new types ''[of Van de Graaff generators]'' are developed and sufficiently improved a great future will be assured to them''". High-power machines were soon developed, working on pressurized containers to allow greater charge concentration on the surfaces without ionization. Variations of the Van de Graaff generator were also developed for Physics research, as the [[Pelletron]], that uses a chain with alternating insulating and conducting links for charge transport. Simplified Van de Graaff generators are commonly seen in demonstrations about static electricity, due to its high-voltage capability, producing the curious effect of making the hair of people touching the terminal, standing over an insulating support, stand up. |
|||
Between 1945 and 1960, the French researcher Noël Felici developed a series of high-power electrostatic generators, based on electronic excitation and using cylinders rotating at high speed in pressurized containers. |
|||
===Related recent machines=== |
|||
In [[1991]], G. L. Paramo developed the [[Lorente generator]]. It is a [[triboelectric|triboelectric machine]] operating with rolling friction, consisting of four cylinders with the two central ones made of different insulating materials and the two outer ones metallic. The cylinders rotate under some pressure, and the charges separated between the two central cylinders are collected by the outer cylinders. |
|||
==Fringe science and devices== |
|||
These generators have been used, sometimes inappropriately and with some controversy, to support various [[fringe science]] investigations. In [[1911]], [[George Samuel Piggott]] received a patent for a compact double machine enclosed within a pressurized box for his experiments concerning [[radiotelegraphy]] and "[[antigravity]]". Much later (in the 1960s), the ''[[Testatika]]'' was built by [[Germany|German]] [[engineer]], [[Paul Bauman|Paul Suisse Bauman]], and promoted by a Swiss community, the [[Methernitha]]ns. Testatika is an electromagnetic generator based on the 1889 Pidgeon electrostatic machine, said to produce "free energy" available directly from the environment. |
|||
==See also== |
|||
* [[List of electrostatic generator patents]] |
|||
* [[Electrostatic motor]] |
|||
* [[Electrometer]] (also known as the "electroscope") |
|||
* [[Electret]] |
|||
==Further reading== |
|||
* C. L. Stong, "[http://scholar.google.com/url?sa=U&q=http://www.meridian-int-res.com/Energy/ESMotors.pdf Electrostatic motors are powered by electric field of the Earth]". October, 1974. (PDF) |
|||
* [[Oleg D. Jefimenko]] , "''Electrostatic Motors: Their History, Types, and Principles of Operation''". Electret Scientific, Star City, 1973. |
|||
* G. W. Francis (Author) and Oleg D. Jefimenko (Editor), "''Electrostatic Experiments: An Encyclopedia of Early Electrostatic Experiments, Demonstrations, Devices, and Apparatus''". Electret Scientific, Star City, 2005. |
|||
* V. E. Johnson, "''Modern High-Speed Influence Machines; Their principles, construction and applications to radiography, radio-telegraphy, spark photography, electro-culture, electro-therapeutics, high-tension gas ignition, and the testing of materials''". ISBN B0000EFPCO |
|||
* Alfred W. Simon, "''[http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v24/i6/p690_1 Quantitative Theory of the Influence Electrostatic Generator]''". Phys. Rev. 24, 690–696 (1924), Issue 6 – December 1924. |
|||
* J. Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (2nd ed.,Oxford, 1881), vol. i. p.294 |
|||
* J. D. Everett, Electricity (expansion of part iii. of Deschanels Natural Philosophy) (London, 1901), ch. iv. p. 20 |
|||
* A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik (Breslau, 1905), vol. iv. pp. 50-58 (contains a large number of references to original papers) |
|||
* J. Gray, "''Electrical Influence Machines, Their Historical Development and Modern Forms [with instruction on making them]''" (London, I903). (J. A. F.) |
|||
* [[Silvanus P. Thompson]], The Influence Machine from Nicholson -1788 to 1888, Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng., 1888, 17, p. 569 |
|||
* John Munro, [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext03/strlc10.txt The Story Of Electricity] (The Project Gutenberg Etext) |
|||
* A. D. Moore (Editor), "''Electrostatics and its Applications''". Wiley, New York, 1973. |
|||
* Oleg D. Jefimenko (with D. K. Walker), "''Electrostatic motors''". Phys. Teach. 9, 121-129 (1971). |
|||
* W. R. Pidgeon, "''An Influence-Machine''". Proc. Phys. Soc. London 12 No 1 (October 1892) 406-411. |
|||
* W. R. Pidgeon, "''An Influence-Machine''". Proc. Phys. Soc. London 16 No 1 (October 1897) 253-257. |
|||
==External articles and references== |
|||
* "''[http://22.1911encyclopedia.org/E/EL/ELECTRICAL_or_ELECTROSTATIC_MACHINE.htm Electrical (or Electrostatic) Machine]''". [[1911 encyclopedia]]. |
|||
* "''How it works : [http://www.triquartz.co.uk/electricity.html Electricity]''". triquartz.co.uk. |
|||
* Antonio Carlos M. de Queiroz, "''[http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/electrostatic.html Electrostatic Machines]''". |
|||
**"''[http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/whyhow.html Operation of the Wimshurst machine]''". |
|||
*"''[http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0031-9120/42/2/004/ Doublers of Electricity]''", 2007 Phys. Educ. 42 156-162. |
|||
*[http://www.sparkmuseum.com/FRICTION.HTM American Museum of Radio: Electrostatic Machines] |
|||
*[http://www.thebakken.org/artifacts/friction.htm The Bakken Museum: frictional generators] |
|||
* "''[http://www.angelfire.com/ak5/energy21/electrostatics.htm Articles on Electrostatics from those that actually made the discoveries]''". Experiments with non conventional energy technologies. |
|||
* Sir William Thomson ([[Lord Kelvin]]), "''[http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_electric_machines.html On Electric Machines Founded on Induction and Convection]''". Philosophical Magazine, January 1868. |
|||
* Bill Beaty, "''[http://www.amasci.com/emotor/kelvin.html 'Kelvin's Thunderstorm']; Lord Kelvin's water-drop electrostatic generator''". 1995. |
|||
* M. Hill and D. J. Jacobs, "''[http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/-search=18095937.1/0031-9120/32/1/022 A novel Kelvin Electrostatic Generator]''", 1997 Phys. Educ. 32 60-63. |
|||
* Paolo Brenni (Author) and Willem Hackmann (Editor), "''The Van de Graaff Generator: [http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/lyonelb/sis.html An Electrostatic Machine for the 20th Century]''". Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 63 (1999) |
|||
* [[Nikola Tesla]], "''Possibilities Of Electrostatic Generators''". Scientific American, March, 1934. (ed., [http://www.tesla.hu/tesla/articles/19340300.doc Available .doc format]) |
|||
* Lyonel Baum, "''1,000,000 Volts, [http://members.aol.com/lyonelb/felici.html Felici's electrostatic generator]''". 2000. |
|||
[[Category:Electrical generators]] |
|||
[[Category:History of physics|Electrostatic generator]] |
|||
[[bg:Електростатичен генератор]] |
|||
[[de:Elektrisiermaschine]] |
|||
[[it:Generatore elettrostatico]] |
|||
[[nl:Elektriseermachine]] |
|||
Revision as of 01:07, 19 June 2007
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux.
Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux (May 11, 1827, Valenciennes –October 12, 1875, Courbevoie) was a French sculptor and painter. His early studies were under François Rude. Carpeaux won the Prix de Rome in 1854, and moving to Rome to find inspiration, he there studied the works of Michelangelo, Donatello and Verrocchio. Staying in Rome from 1854 to 1861, he obtained a taste for movement and spontaneity, which he joined with the great principles of baroque art. In 1861 he made a bust of Princess Mathilde, and this later brought him several commissions from Napoleon III. He worked at the pavilion of Flora, and the Opéra Garnier. His group La Danse (the Dance, 1869), situated on the right side of the façade, was criticised as an offence to common decency.
He never managed to finish his last work, the famous Fountain of the Four Parts of the Earth, on the Place Camille Jullian. He did finish the terrestrial globe, supported by the four figures of Asia, Europe, America and Africa, and it was Emmanuel Frémiet who completed the work by adding the eight leaping horses, the tortoises and the dolphins of the basin.
Sculptures by Carpeaux
- Ugolin et ses fils - Ugolino and his Sons (1861, in the permanent collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art)[[1]] with versions in other museums including the Musée d'Orsay
- The Dance (commissioned for the Opera Garnier)
- Jeune pêcheur à la coquille - Neapolitan Fisherboy - in the Louvre, Paris [[2]]
- Girl with Shell
- Antoine Watteau monument, Valenciennes
Neapolitan Fisherboy
Carpeaux submitted a plaster version of Pêcheur napolitain à la coquille, the Neapolitan Fisherboy, to the French Academy while a student in Rome. He carved the marble version several years later, showing it in the Salon exhibition of 1863. It was purchased for Napoleon III's empress, Eugènie. The statue of the young smiling boy was very popular, and Carpeaux created a number of reproductions and variations in marble and bronze. There is a copy, for instance, in the Samuel H. Kress Collection in the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C.
Some years later, he carved the Girl with a Shell, a very similar study.
Carpeaux sought real life subjects in the streets and broke with the classical tradition. The Neapolitan Fisherboy's body is carved in intimate detail and shows an intricately balanced pose. Carpeaux claimed that he based the Neapolitan Fisherboy on a boy he had seen during a trip to Naples.
External links
- A page on the official Louvre site giving access to some of Carpeaux's works (French language only)
- A page from insecula.com listing more views of Carpeaux's works (also in French; it may be necessary to close an advertising window to view this page)
- A page analysing Carpeaux's Ugolino, with numerous illustrations