Famine in India: Difference between revisions

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Stop edit-warring - Maharashtra was a drought and if there were zero deaths as alleged, it can't have been a famine - also Bihar was not "small"
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{{Famines in India}}
{{Famines in India}}
[[Famine]] has been a recurrent feature of life in [[South Asia]], and reached its numerically deadliest peak in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Historical and legendary evidence names some 90 famines in 2,500 years of history, two-thirds of those since 1700.{{sfn|Murton|2000|p=1412}} There were 14 famines in [[History of India|India]] between the 11th and 17th centuries. Famines in India resulted in roughly more than 60 million deaths over the course of the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. The last major famine was the Bengal famine of 1943. A famine on a much smaller scale occurred in the state of [[Bihar]] in December 1966.{{sfn|Drèze|2010|p=1}} The drought of [[Maharashtra]] in 1970–1973 is often cited as an example in which successful famine relief processes were employed.{{#tag:ref|India's great 'success story' of famine prevention is more justly dated in 1972-3, when another very severe drought hit large parts of the country. The worst affected state was that of Maharashtra...{{sfn|Drèze|1991|p=46}}|group=fn}}
[[Famine]] has been a recurrent feature of life in [[South Asia]], and reached its numerically deadliest peak in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Historical and legendary evidence names some 90 famines in 2,500 years of history, two-thirds of those since 1700.{{sfn|Murton|2000|p=1412}} There were 14 famines in [[History of India|India]] between the 11th and 17th centuries. Famines in India resulted in roughly more than 60 million deaths over the course of the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. The last major famine was the Bengal famine of 1943. A famine in the state of [[Bihar]] in December 1966 caused around 200,000 deaths.


[[India]]n [[agriculture in India|agriculture]] is heavily dependent on the [[climate of India]]: a favorable southwest summer [[monsoon]] is critical in securing water for irrigating crops. [[Drought]]s, combined with policy failures, have periodically led to major Indian famines, including the [[Bengal famine of 1770]], the [[Chalisa famine]], the [[Doji bara famine]], the [[Great Famine of 1876–78]], and the [[Bengal famine of 1943]].{{sfn|Nash|2003|pp=22–23}}{{sfn|Collier|Webb|2002|p=67}} Some historians, social scientists, contemporary critics, and participants have identified British government inaction and adherence to [[utilitarianism|utilitarian]], [[mercantilism|mercantilist]], and [[Malthusian]] policies as contributing factors to the severity of famines during the time India was under [[British Raj|British rule]]. The 1883 Indian Famine Codes, transportation improvements, and democratic rule after independence have been identified as furthering famine relief. In India, traditionally, agricultural laborers and rural artisans have been the primary victims of famines. In the worst famines, cultivators have also been also susceptible.{{sfn|Drèze|1991|p=17}}
[[India]]n [[agriculture in India|agriculture]] is heavily dependent on the [[climate of India]]: a favorable southwest summer [[monsoon]] is critical in securing water for irrigating crops. [[Drought]]s, combined with policy failures, have periodically led to major Indian famines, including the [[Bengal famine of 1770]], the [[Chalisa famine]], the [[Doji bara famine]], the [[Great Famine of 1876–78]], and the [[Bengal famine of 1943]].{{sfn|Nash|2003|pp=22–23}}{{sfn|Collier|Webb|2002|p=67}} Some historians, social scientists, contemporary critics, and participants have identified British government inaction and adherence to [[utilitarianism|utilitarian]], [[mercantilism|mercantilist]], and [[Malthusian]] policies as contributing factors to the severity of famines during the time India was under [[British Raj|British rule]]. The 1883 Indian Famine Codes, transportation improvements, and democratic rule after independence have been identified as furthering famine relief. In India, traditionally, agricultural laborers and rural artisans have been the primary victims of famines. In the worst famines, cultivators have also been also susceptible.{{sfn|Drèze|1991|p=17}}

Revision as of 09:03, 17 December 2010

Template:Famines in India Famine has been a recurrent feature of life in South Asia, and reached its numerically deadliest peak in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Historical and legendary evidence names some 90 famines in 2,500 years of history, two-thirds of those since 1700.[1] There were 14 famines in India between the 11th and 17th centuries. Famines in India resulted in roughly more than 60 million deaths over the course of the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. The last major famine was the Bengal famine of 1943. A famine in the state of Bihar in December 1966 caused around 200,000 deaths.

Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the climate of India: a favorable southwest summer monsoon is critical in securing water for irrigating crops. Droughts, combined with policy failures, have periodically led to major Indian famines, including the Bengal famine of 1770, the Chalisa famine, the Doji bara famine, the Great Famine of 1876–78, and the Bengal famine of 1943.[2][3] Some historians, social scientists, contemporary critics, and participants have identified British government inaction and adherence to utilitarian, mercantilist, and Malthusian policies as contributing factors to the severity of famines during the time India was under British rule. The 1883 Indian Famine Codes, transportation improvements, and democratic rule after independence have been identified as furthering famine relief. In India, traditionally, agricultural laborers and rural artisans have been the primary victims of famines. In the worst famines, cultivators have also been also susceptible.[4]

Ancient India

Kalinga in 265 BCE – Ashokan inscriptions record hundreds of thousands dying from famine and disease after the Kalinga War in 269 BCE.

One of the earliest treatises on famine relief goes back more than 2000 years. This treatise is commonly attributed to Kautilya, who recommended that a good king should build new forts and water-works and share his provisions with the people, or entrust the country to another king.[5] Historically, Indian rulers have employed several methods of famine relief. Some of these were direct, such as initiating free distribution of food grains and throwing open grain stores and kitchens to the people. Other measures were monetary policies such as remission of revenue, remission of taxes, increase of pay to soldiers, and payment of advances. Yet other measures included construction of public works, canals, and embankments, and sinking wells. Migration was encouraged.[5] Kautilya even advocated raiding the provisions of the rich in times of famine to "thin them by exacting excess revenue."[4] Information on famines from ancient India up to colonial times is found in four primary sources:[6]

  1. Legendary tales passed down in oral tradition that keep alive the memory of famines
  2. Ancient Indian literature such as the Vedas, Jataka stories, and the Arthashastra
  3. Stone and metal inscriptions provide information on several famines before the 16th century
  4. Writings of Muslim historians in Mughal India

Legendary famines preserved in oral tradition are the Dvadasavarha Panjam famine of south India and the Durgadevi famine of the Deccan from 1396 to 1407.[7][8] From Hindu literature, there is the 7th century famine due to failure of rains in Tanjore district mentioned in the Periya Puranam. According to the Purana, Lord Shiva helped the Tamil saints Sambandhar and Appar to provide relief from the famine.[7] Another famine in the same district is recorded on an inscription with details such as "times becoming bad", a village being ruined, and cultivation of food being disrupted in Alangudi in 1054.[9]

The ancient Ashokan edicts of the Mauryan age around 269 BC record emperor Ashoka's conquest of Kalinga, roughly the modern state of Orissa. The major rock and pillar edicts mention the massive human toll of about 100,000 due to the war. The edicts record that an even larger number later perished, presumably from wounds and famine.[10] The Tughlaq dynasty under Muhammad bin Tughluq held power in Delhi during the famine in and around Delhi in 1335–42. The sultanate offered no relief to the starving residents of Delhi during this famine.[11] The oldest famine in pre-colonial Deccan with well-preserved local documentation is the famine of 1791–92. Relief was provided by the ruler, the Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao II, in the form of imposing restrictions on export of grain and importing rice in large quantities from Bengal via private trading. Other pre-colonial famines in the Deccan were the Damajipant famine of 1460 and the famines starting in 1520 and 1629. In the famine in the Deccan and Gujarat, at least 2 million people died between 1630–32. The Damajipant famine is said to have caused ruin both in the northern and southern parts of the Deccan.[8]

British rule

Victims of the Great Famine of 1876–78 in India
People waiting for famine relief in Bangalore. From the Illustrated London News, (20 October 1877)

The late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw the worst famines.[fn 1] The first, the Bengal famine of 1770, is estimated to have taken the lives of nearly one-third of the population of the region—about 10 million people.[12] The impact of the famine caused East India Company revenues from Bengal to decline to £174,300 in 1770–71. The stock price of the East India Company fell sharply as a result. The company was forced to obtain a loan of £1 million from the Bank of England to fund the annual military budget of between £60,000–1 million.[13] Attempts were later made to show that net revenue was unaffected by the famine, but this was possible only because the collection had been "violently kept up to its former standard".[14][fn 2] The 1901 Famine Commission found that twelve famines and four "severe scarcities" took place between 1765 and 1858.[16]

Researcher Brian Murton states that the famines recorded after the arrival of the English, but before the establishment of the Indian Famine Codes of the 1880s, bear a cultural bias regarding the stated causes of the famine because they "reflect the view of a handful of Englishmen."[17] These sources, however, contain accurate recordings of weather and crop conditions. Florence Nightingale made efforts to educate British citizens about India's famines through a series of publications in the 1870s and beyond.[18] Evidence suggests that there may have been large famines in south India every forty years in pre-colonial India, and that the frequency might have been higher after the 12th century. These famines still did not approach the incidence of famines of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries under British rule.[17]

Major famines in India (Death estimates in millions, where available)

Before British rule (1000–1745)[19][20][21] British era (1800–1900)[19][20][21]
Century Famines Location
11th
2
 local
13th
1
 Around Delhi
14th
3
 local
15th
2
 local
16th
3
 All local
17th
3
 Area not defined
18th
(1745)
4
 Northwestern provinces
Delhi, Sindh (twice), local
Total
18
-
Years Famines Deaths
1770–1800
4
32[22][23][24]
1800–1825
3
1
1800–1825
5
1
1825–1850
2
0.5
1850–1875
6
5
1875–1900
18
26
1900–1925
1
0.23[25]
1925–1947
1
5[25]
Total
40
70.73

Scholarly opinions

Florence Nightingale pointed out that the famines in British India were not caused by the lack of food in a particular geographical area. They were instead caused by inadequate transportation of food, which in turn was caused due to an absence of a political and social structure.[26]

Nightingale identified two types of famine: a grain famine and a "money famine". Money was drained from the peasant to the landlord, making it impossible for the peasant to procure food. Money which should have been made available to the producers of food via public works projects and jobs was instead diverted to other uses.[26] Nightingale pointed out that money needed to combat famine was being diverted towards activities like paying for the British military effort in Afghanistan in 1878–80.[26]

The Nobel prize winning economist Amartya Sen implies that the famines in the British era were due to a lack of a serious effort on the part of the British government to prevent famines. He links the lack of this serious effort to the absence of democracy in British India.[fn 3] The father of India's green revolution M. S. Swaminathan credits the elimination of famines to Indian independence from the Britain despite the trebling of population.[fn 4]

Mike Davis has claimed that these famines were actually 'Late Victorian Holocausts' in the 1870s and 1890s. This negative image of British rule is common in India.[29] The earlier Bengal famine of 1770 is one of the reasons that the British do not have a positive legacy in India.[30]

Causes

The famines were a product both of uneven rainfall and British economic and administrative policies.[31][32][33] Colonial polices implicated include rack-renting, levies for war, free trade policies, the expansion of export agriculture, and neglect of agricultural investment.[34][35] Indian exports of opium, rice, wheat, indigo, and cotton were a key component of the economy of the British empire, generating vital foreign currency, primarily from China, and stabilizing low prices in the British grain market.[36][37] Export crops displaced millions of acres that could have been used for domestic subsistence, and increased the vulnerability of Indians to food crises.[36] The Orissa famine of 1866–67, which later spread through the Madras Presidency to Hyderabad and Mysore, was one such famine.[38] The famine of 1866 was a severe and terrible event in the history of Orissa in which about a third of the population died.[39] The famine left an estimated 1,553 orphans whose guardians were to receive an amount of Indian Rupee 3 per month until the age of 17 for boys and 16 for girls.[40] Similar famines followed in the western Ganges region, Rajasthan, central India (1868–70), Bengal and eastern India (1873–1874), Deccan (1876–78), and again in the Ganges region, Madras, Hyderabad, Mysore, and Bombay (1876–1878).[38] The famine of 1876–78, also known as the Great Famine of 1876–78, caused a large migration of agricultural laborers and artisans from southern India to British tropical colonies, where they worked as indentured laborers on plantations.[41][42] The large death toll—about 10.3 million—offset the usual population growth in the Bombay and Madras Presidencies between the first and second censuses of British India in 1871 and 1881 respectively.[43] The large-scale loss of life due to the series of famines between 1860 and 1877 was the cause of political controversy and discussion which led to the formation of the Indian Famine Commission. This commission would later come up with a draft version of the Indian Famine Code.[44] It was the Great Famine of 1876–78, however, that was the direct cause of investigations and the beginning of a process that led to the establishment of the Indian Famine code.[45] The next major famine was the Indian famine of 1896–97. Although this famine was preceded by a drought in the Madras Presidency, it was made more acute by the government's policy of laissez faire in the trade of grain.[46] For example, two of the worst famine-afflicted areas in the Madras Presidency, the districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam, continued to export grains throughout the famine.[46] These famines were typically followed by various infectious diseases such as bubonic plague and influenza, which attacked and killed a population already weakened by starvation.[47]

Bengal famine of 1943

The Bengal famine of 1943 reached its peak between July and November of that year, and the worst of the famine was over by early 1945.[48] Famine fatality statistics were unreliable, and a range of between 2–4 million has been suggested. Although one of the causes of the famine was the cutting off of the supply of rice to Bengal during the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese, this was only a fraction of the food needed for the region.[49] According to the Irish economist and professor Cormac Ó Gráda, priority was given to military considerations, and the poor of Bengal were left unprovided for.[50] The Famine Commission of 1948 and economist Amartya Sen found that there was enough rice in Bengal to feed all of Bengal for most of 1943.[51] These studies, however, did not account for possible inaccuracies in estimates or the impact of fungal disease on the rice.[51] De Waal states that the British government did not enforce the Famine Codes during the Bengal famine of 1943 because they failed to detect a food shortage.[52] The Bengal famine of 1943 was the last catastrophic famine in India,[53] and it holds a special place in the historiography of famine due to Sen's classic work of 1981 titled Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation.[54]

British response

A contemporary print of the Madras famine of 1877 showing the distribution of relief in Bellary, Madras Presidency. From the Illustrated London News, (1877)

The first major famine that took place under British rule was the Bengal Famine of 1770. About a quarter to a third of the population of Bengal starved to death in about a ten-month period. East India Company's raising of taxes disastrously coincided with this famine[55] and exacerbated it, even if the famine was not caused by the British regime.[56] Following this famine, "Successive British governments were anxious not to add to the burden of taxation."[57] The rains failed again in Bengal and Orissa in 1866. Policies of laissez faire were employed, which resulted in partial alleviation of the famine in Bengal. However, the southwest Monsoon made the harbor in Orissa inaccessible. As a result, food could not be imported into Orissa as easily as Bengal.[58] In 1865–66, severe drought struck Orissa and was met by British official inaction. The British Secretary of State for India, Lord Salisbury, did nothing for two months, by which time a million people had died. The lack of attention to the problem caused Salisbury to never feel free from blame.[fn 5] Some British citizens such as William Digby agitated for policy reforms and famine relief, but Lord Lytton, the governing British viceroy in India, opposed such changes in the belief that they would stimulate shirking by Indian workers. Reacting against calls for relief during the 1877–79 famine, Lytton replied, "Let the British public foot the bill for its 'cheap sentiment,' if it wished to save life at a cost that would bankrupt India," substantively ordering "there is to be no interference of any kind on the part of Government with the object of reducing the price of food," and instructing district officers to "discourage relief works in every possible way.... Mere distress is not a sufficient reason for opening a relief work."[60] In 1874 the response from the British authorities was better and famine was completely averted. Then in 1876 a huge famine broke out in Madras. Lord Lytton's administration believed that 'market forces alone would suffice to feed the starving Indians.'[55][fn 6] The results of such thinking proved fatal (some 5.5 million starved),[62] so this policy was abandoned. Lord Lytton established the Famine Insurance Grant, a system in which, in times of financial surplus, INR 1,500,000 would be applied to famine relief works. The result was that the British prematurely assumed that the problem of famine had been solved forever. Future British viceroys became complacent, and this proved disastrous in 1896.[63] About 4.5 million people were on famine relief at the peak of the famine. Curzon stated that such philanthropy would be criticized, but not doing so would be a crime.[fn 7] He also cut back rations that he characterized as "dangerously high," and stiffened relief eligibility by reinstating the Temple tests.[65] Between 1.25 to 10 million people died in the famine.[66][67] The famine during World War II lead to the development of the Bengal Famine Mixture. This would later save tens of thousands of lives at liberated concentration camps such as Belsen.[68]

Policy influences

British famine policy in India was influenced by the arguments of Adam Smith, as seen by the non-interference of the government with the grain market even in times of famines.[46][45] Keeping the famine relief as cheap as possible, with minimum cost to the colonial exchequer, was another important factor in determining famine policy.[34][45] According to Brian Murton, a professor of geography at the University of Hawaii, another possible impact on British policy on famine in India was the influence of the English Poor Laws of 1834,[45] with the difference being that the English were willing to "maintain" the poor in England in normal times, whereas Indians would receive subsistence only when entire populations were endangered.[69] Similarities between the Irish famine of 1846–49 and the later Indian famines of the last part of the 19th century were seen. In both countries, there were no impediments to the export of food during times of famines.[69] Lessons learnt from the Irish famine were not seen in the correspondence on policy-making during the 1870s in India.[70][69]

Famine Codes

See also: Indian Famine Codes

The Famine Commission of 1880 observed that each province in British India, including Burma, had a surplus of food grains, and that the annual surplus amounted to 5.16 million metric tons.[71] The product of the Famine Commission was a series of government guidelines and regulations on how to respond to famines and food shortages called the Famine Code. These had to wait until the exit of the viceroy Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton, and were finally passed in 1883 under a liberal British viceroy, George Fredrick Samuel Robinson. They presented an early warning system to detect and respond to food shortages.[72] Despite the codes, mortality from famine was highest in last 25 years of the 19th century.[73][74] At that time, annual exports of rice and other grains from India was approximately one million metric tons. Development economist Jean Drèze evaluated the conditions before and after Famine Commission policy changes: "A contrast between the earlier period of frequently recurring catastrophes, and the latter period when long stretches of tranquility were disturbed by a few large scale famines" in 1896–97, 1899–1900, and 1943–44.[75] Drèze explains these "intermittent failures" by four factors—failure to declare a famine (particularly in 1943), the "excessively punitive character" of famine restrictions such as wages for public works, the "policy of strict non-interference with private trade," and the natural severity of the food crises.[75] There was the threat of famine, but after 1902 there was no major famine in India until the Bengal famine of 1943. This famine was the most devastating; between 2.5 and 3 million people died during World War II.[76] In India as a whole, the food supply was rarely inadequate, even in times of droughts. The Famine Commission of 1880 identified that the loss of wages from lack of employment of agricultural laborers and artisans were the cause of famines. The Famine Codes applied a strategy of generating employment for these sections of the population and relied on open-ended public works to do so.[77] The Indian Famine Code was used in India until more lessons were learnt from the Bihar famine of 1966–67.[44] Many of these Famine Codes have been updated in independent India and have been renamed "Scarcity Manuals." In some parts of the country, the Famine Codes are no longer used, primarily because the rules embodied in them have become routine procedure in famine relief strategy.[78]

Impact of rail transport

See also: History of rail transport in India
Railroad network on the eve of the worst famines in Indian history in 1870

During the famines of the 1870s, the failure to provide food to the millions who were hungry has been blamed both on the absence of adequate rail infrastructure and the incorporation of grain into the world market through rail and telegraph. Davis[79] notes that, "The newly constructed railroads, lauded as institutional safeguards against famine, were instead used by merchants to ship grain inventories from outlying drought-stricken districts to central depots for hoarding (as well as protection from rioters)" and that telegraphs served to coordinate a rise in prices so that "food prices soared out of the reach of outcaste laborers, displaced weavers, sharecroppers and poor peasants." Members of the British administrative apparatus were also concerned that the larger market created by railway transport encouraged poor peasants to sell of their reserve stocks of grain.[80]

Rail transport, however, also played an essential role in supplying grain from food-surplus regions to famine-stricken ones. The 1880 Famine Codes urged a restructuring and massive expansion of railways, with an emphasis on intra-Indian lines as opposed to the existing port-centered system. These new lines, extended the existing network to allow food to flow to famine-afflicted regions.[81] Jean Drèze (1991) also finds that the necessary economic conditions were present for a national market in food to reduce scarcity by the end of the 19th century, but that export of food continued to result from that market even during times of relative scarcity. The effectiveness of this system, however, relied on government provision of famine relief: "Railroads could perform the crucial task of moving grain from one part of India to another, but they could not assure that hungry people would have the money to buy that grain".[82]

Railways also had a separate impact on reducing famine mortality. By generating broader areas of labor migration and facilitating the massive emigration of Indians during the late 19th century, they provided famine-afflicted people the option to leave for other parts of the country and the world. By the 1912–13 scarcity crisis, migration and relief supply were able to absorb the impact of a medium-scale shortage of food.[83] Drèze concludes, "In sum, and with a major reservation applying to international trade, it is plausible that the improvement in communication toward the end of the nineteenth century did make a major contribution to the alleviation of distress during famines. However, it is also easy to see that this factor alone could hardly account for the very sharp reduction in the incidence of famines in the twentieth century".[84]

Republic of India

Since the Bengal famine of 1943, there has been a declining number of famines which have had limited effects and have been of short durations. Sen attributes this trend of decline or disappearance of famines after independence to a democratic system of governance and a free press—not to increased food production.[53][85] Later famine threats of 1984, 1988 and 1998 were successfully contained by the Indian government and there has been no major famine in India since 1943.[86] Indian Independence in 1947 did not stop damage to crops nor lack of rain. As such, the threat of famines did not go away. India faced a number of threats of severe famines in 1967, 1973, 1979 and 1987 in Bihar, Maharashtra, West Bengal, and Gujarat respectively. However these did not materialize in to famines due to government intervention.[87] The loss of life did not meet the scale of the 1943 Bengal or earlier famines but continued to be a problem. Jean Drèze finds that the post-Independence Indian government "largely remedied" the causes of the three major failures of 1880–1948 British famine policy, "an event which must count as marking the second great turning point in the history of famine relief in India over the past two centuries".[88]

Infrastructure development

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NABARD headquarters in Mumbai, India
NABARD headquarters in Mumbai, India
HeadquartersMumbai, Maharashtra, India
EstablishedJuly 12, 1982[89]
CurrencyRupees (INR)
Reserves₹118,176 crore (US$15 billion) (March 31, 2009)[90]
WebsiteOfficial Website

Deaths from starvation were reduced by improvements to famine relief mechanisms after the British left. In independent India, policy changes aimed to make people self-reliant to earn their livelihood and by providing food through the public distribution system at discounted rates.[73] Between 1947–64 the initial agricultural infrastructure was laid by the founding of organizations such as the Central Rice Institute in Cuttack, the Central Potato Research Institute in Shimla, and universities such as the Pant Nagar University. The population of India was growing at 3% per year, and food imports were required despite the improvements from the new infrastructure . At its peak, 10 million tonnes of food were imported from the United States.[28] In the twenty year period between 1965–1985 gaps in infrastructure were bridged by the establishment of The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). During times of famines, droughts and other natural calamities, NABARD provides loan rescheduling and loan conversion facilitates to eligible institutions such as State Cooperative banks and Regional Rural Banks for periods up to 7 years.[91][92] In the same period, high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice were introduced. Steps taken in this phase resulted in the Green Revolution which led to a mood of self-confidence in India's agricultural capability.[28] The Green Revolution in India was initially hailed as a success, but has recently been 'downgraded' to a 'qualified success'— not because of a lack of increased food production, but because the increase in food production has slowed down and has not been able to keep pace with population growth.[93] Between 1985–2000, emphasis was laid on production of pulses and oilseed, as well as vegetables, fruits, and milk. A wasteland development board was setup, and rain fed areas were given more attention. Public investment in irrigation and infrastructure, however, declined. The period also saw a gradual collapse of the cooperative credit system.[28] In 1998–99, NABARD introduced a credit scheme to allow banks to issue short-term and timely credit to farmers in need via the Kisan Credit Card scheme. The scheme has become popular among issuing bankers and the recipient farmers with a total credit of ₹33,994 crore (US$4.3 billion) made available via the issuing of 23,200,000 credit cards as of November 2002.[94] Between 2000 and present day, land use for food or fuel has become a competing issue due to a demand for ethanol.

Myths

The Rattus and Mus genus of rats are a part of the mechanism that causes a decline in food availability in northeastern India[95]

Several myths have been associated with bamboo flowering in India since the time of Mahabharata.[96] The northeastern state of Mizoram has bamboo as a dominant species over much of the state which experiences a cyclical phenomenon of bamboo flowering followed by bamboo death.[97] The bamboo plants are known to undergo gregarious flowering once in their life cycle which can happen anywhere in a range of 7 to 120 years.[98] A common local myth and observation is that bamboo flowering is followed by famine and unrest amongst the people.[98] The first such event in the Republic of India was reported in 1958 when the local Mizo District Council cautioned the Assam government of an impending famine which the government rejected on the grounds that it was not scientific.[99] A famine did occur in the region in 1961. In 2001 the Government of India began working on an emergency plan to address regional food shortages after reports that bamboo flowering and bamboo death would occur again in the near future.[100] According to Forest Department Special Secretary K.D.R. Jayakumar, the relationship between famine and bamboo flowering, while widely believed to be true by the tribal locals, has not been scientifically proven.[98] John and Nadgauda, however, strongly feel that such a scientific connection exists, and that it may not simply be local myth.[101] They describe a detailed mechanism demonstrating the relationship between the flowering and the famine. According to them, the flowering is followed by a large quantity of bamboo seeds on the forest floor which causes a spike in the population of the Rattus and Mus genus of rats who feed of these seeds. With the changing weather and onset of rains, the seeds germinate and force the mice to migrate to land farms in search of food. On the land farms, the mice feed on crops and grains stored in granaries which causes a decline in food availability.[95] In 2001, the local administration tried to prevent the impending famine by offering local villagers the equivalent of $2.50 for every 100 rats killed.[102] The botanist H. Y. Mohan Ram of the University of Delhi, who is one of the country's foremost authorities on bamboo, considered these techniques outlandish. He suggested that a better way of solving the problem was to teach the local farmers to switch to cultivating different varieties of crops such as ginger and turmeric during periods of bamboo flowering since these crops are not consumed by the rats.[103] Similar myths have been observed thousands of kilometers away in south India in the people of Cherthala in the Alappuzha district of Kerala who believe that flowering bamboo is a sign of impending disaster.[96]

Bihar famine

A child suffering Marasmus, extreme starvation, in 1972.

Annual production of food grains dropped in Bihar from 7.5 million tonnes in 1965–66 to 7.2 million tonnes in 1966–1967 during the Bihar drought. There was an even sharper drop in 1966–67 to 4.3 million tonnes. The national grain production dropped from 89.4 million tonnes in 1964–65 to 72.3 in 1965–66 — a 19% drop. Rise in prices of food grains caused migration and starvation, but the public distribution system, relief measures by the government, and voluntary organizations limited the impact.[104] On a number of occasions, the Indian-government sought food and grain from the United States to provide replacement for damaged crops. The government also setup more than 20,000 fair-price stores to provide food at regulated prices for the poor or those with limited incomes.[105] A large scale famine in Bihar was adverted due to this import, although livestock and crops were destroyed. The Bihar drought of 1966–67 gave impetus to further changes in agricultural policy and this resulted in the Green Revolution.[73]

Maharashtra famine

After several years of good monsoons and a good crop in the early 1970s, India considered exporting food and being self-sufficient. Earlier in 1963, the government of the state of Maharashtra asserted that the agricultural situation in the state was constantly being watched and relief measures were taken as soon as any scarcity was detected. On the basis of this, and asserting that the word famine had now become obsolete in this context, the government passed the "The Maharashtra Deletion Of The Term 'Famine' Act, 1963".[106] They were unable to foresee the drought in 1972 when 25 million people needed help. The relief measures undertaken by the Government of Maharashtra included employment, programs aimed at creating productive assets such as tree plantation, conservation of soil, excavation of canals, and building artificial lentic water bodies. The public distribution system distributed food through fair-price shops. No deaths from starvation were reported.[107] This help was provided in the form of large scale employment to the deprived sections of Maharashtrian society which attracted considerable amounts of food to Maharashtra. The implementation of the Scarcity Manuals in the Bihar and Maharashtra famines prevented the mortality arising from severe food shortages. While the relief program in Bihar was poor, Drèze calls the one in Maharastra a model program. The relief works initiated by the government helped employ over 5 million people at the height of the drought in Maharashtra leading to effective famine prevention.[108] The effectiveness of the Maharashtra was also attributable to the direct pressure on the government of Maharashtra by the public who perceived that employment via the relief works program was their right. The public protested by marching, picketing, and even rioting .[109] Drèze reports a laborer saying "they would let us die if they thought we would not make a noise about it."[110]

West Bengal drought

The drought of 1979–80 in West Bengal was the next major drought and caused a 17% decline in food production with a shortfall of 13.5 million tonnes of food grain. Stored food stocks were leveraged by the government, and there was no net import of food grains. The drought was relatively unknown outside of India.[111] The lessons learned from the Maharashtra and West Bengal droughts led to the Desert Development Program and the Drought Prone Area Program. The intent of these programs was to reduce the negative effects of droughts by applying eco-friendly land use practices and conserving water. Major schemes in improving rural infrastructure, extending irrigation to additional areas, and diversifying agriculture were also launched. The lessons from the 1987 drought brought to light the need for employment generation, watershed planning, and ecologically integrated development.[73]

Other issues

Main article: Malnutrition in India

Deaths from malnutrition on a large scale have continued across India into modern times. In Maharashtra alone, for example, there were around 45,000 childhood deaths due to mild or severe malnutrition in 2009, according to the Times of India.[112] Another Times of India report in 2010 has stated that 50% of childhood deaths in India are attributable to malnutrition.[113] Around 7.5 million people per year die of malnutrition in modern India, the largest death rate caused by malnutrition for any country.

Growing export prices, the melting of the Himalayan glaciers due to global warming, changes in rainfall and temperatures are issues affecting India. If agricultural production does not remain above the population growth rate, there are indications that a return to the pre-independence famine days is a likelihood. People from various walks of life, such as social activist Vandana Shiva and researcher Dan Banik, agree that famines and the resulting large scale loss of life from starvation have been eliminated after Indian independence in 1947.[fn 8] However, Shiva warned in 2002 that famines are making a comeback and government inaction would mean they would reach the scale seen in the Horn of Africa in three or four years.[114]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ "Although all of India suffered to some extent in the early eighteenth century, without question the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were that country's time of famines."[1]
  2. ^ The Company was widely regarded as a pack of bloodsuckers; the Whig leader Lord Rockingham, called them guilty of "rapine and oppression" in Bengal.[15]
  3. ^ Famines are easy to prevent if there is a serious effort to prevent them, and a government of a democratic country-facing elections, criticisms from opposition parties and independent newspapers-cannot but make a serious effort to prevent famines. Not surprisingly, while India continued to have famines under British rule right up to independence (the last famine was in 1943, four years before independence, which I witnessed as a child), they disappeared suddenly, after independence, with the establishment of a multi-part democracy with a free press.[27]
  4. ^ It is to the credit of Independent India that famines of this kind have not been allowed to occur, although our population has grown from 350 million in 1947 to 1,100 million now.[28]
  5. ^ "I did nothing for two months. Before that time the monsoon had closed the ports of Orissa—help was impossible—and—it is said—a million people died. The Governments of India and Bengal had taken in effect no precautions whatever... I never could feel that I was free from all blame for the result." --The British Secretary of State for India, Lord Salisbury.[59]
  6. ^ In the despatch addressed to the Duke of Buckingham, in which the Viceroy announced his intention of visiting the famine districts of Madras and Mysore, the general principles for the management of famine affairs were once more laid down. After stating that the Government of India, with approval of Her Majesty's Government, were resolved to avert death by starvation by the employment of all means available, the Viceroy first expressed his conviction that 'absolute non-interference with the operations of private commercial enterprise must be the foundation of their present famine policy.' This was based on the belief that 'free and abundant trade cannot co-exist with Government importation' and that more food will reach the famine-stricken districts if private enterprise is left to itself (beyond receiving every possible facility and information from the government) than if it were paralysed by Government competition.[61]
  7. ^ Any government which imperiled the financial position of India in the interests of prodigal philanthropy would be open to serious criticism; but any government which by indiscriminate alms-giving weakened the fiber and demoralized the self-reliance of the population, would be guilty of a public crime.[64]
  8. ^ There has not been a large-scale loss of life since 1947.[114]

Citations

  1. ^ a b Murton 2000, p. 1412.
  2. ^ Nash 2003, pp. 22–23.
  3. ^ Collier & Webb 2002, p. 67.
  4. ^ a b Drèze 1991, p. 17.
  5. ^ a b Drèze 1991, p. 19.
  6. ^ Currey & Hugo 1984, pp. 71–74.
  7. ^ a b Currey & Hugo 1984, p. 72.
  8. ^ a b Bombay (India : State) 1883, p. 105.
  9. ^ Currey & Hugo 1984, p. 73.
  10. ^ Keay 2001, p. 91.
  11. ^ Walsh 2006, pp. 71, 292.
  12. ^ Visaria & Visaria 1983, p. 477.
  13. ^ James 2000, pp. 49–52.
  14. ^ Bowen 2002, p. 104.
  15. ^ James 2000, pp. 51.
  16. ^ Desai, Raychaudhuri & Kumar 1983, p. 477.
  17. ^ a b Currey & Hugo 1984, p. 75.
  18. ^ Gourlay 2003, p. 276.
  19. ^ a b Bose 1918, pp. 79–81.
  20. ^ a b Rai 2008, pp. 263–281.
  21. ^ a b Koomar 2009, pp. 13–14.
  22. ^ Desai, Raychaudhuri & Kumar 1983, p. 528.
  23. ^ Grove 2007, p. 80.
  24. ^ Grove 2007, p. 83.
  25. ^ a b Desai, Raychaudhuri & Kumar 1983, p. 531.
  26. ^ a b c Nightingale, McDonald & Vallée 2006, p. 707.
  27. ^ Sen 2001, pp. 12–14.
  28. ^ a b c d Swaminathan 2007, p. 1.
  29. ^ Ferguson 2004, p. 22.
  30. ^ Heaven 2010, p. 1.
  31. ^ Srivastava 1968.
  32. ^ Sen 1982.
  33. ^ Bhatia 1985.
  34. ^ a b Mander 2009, p. 1.
  35. ^ Davis 2001, p. 299.
  36. ^ a b Davis 2001, pp. 299–300.
  37. ^ Wong 1998.
  38. ^ a b Walsh 2006, p. 145.
  39. ^ Samal 1990, p. 6.
  40. ^ Samal 1990, p. 23.
  41. ^ Roy 2006, p. 362.
  42. ^ Roy 1999, p. 18.
  43. ^ Roy 2006, p. 363.
  44. ^ a b Currey & Hugo 1984, p. 91.
  45. ^ a b c d Currey & Hugo 1984, p. 92.
  46. ^ a b c Ghose 1982, p. 380.
  47. ^ Walsh 2006, p. 144-145.
  48. ^ James 2000, p. 581.
  49. ^ Ó Gráda 2007, pp. 26.
  50. ^ Ó Gráda 2007, p. 12.
  51. ^ a b Ó Gráda 2007, p. 23.
  52. ^ Waal 1997, p. 14.
  53. ^ a b Rorabacher 2010, p. 32.
  54. ^ Ó Gráda 2007, pp. 20, 37.
  55. ^ a b Ferguson 2004.
  56. ^ Schama 2003.
  57. ^ Johnson 2003, p. 30.
  58. ^ Fiske 1869.
  59. ^ Davis 2001, p. 32.
  60. ^ Davis 2001, pp. 31, 52.
  61. ^ Balfour 1899, p. 204.
  62. ^ Keay 2001, p. 454.
  63. ^ Gilmour 2007, p. 116.
  64. ^ Davis 2001, p. 162.
  65. ^ Davis 2001, p. 164.
  66. ^ Davis 2001, p. 173.
  67. ^ Nash 2003.
  68. ^ Channel 4 Television 2007.
  69. ^ a b c Currey & Hugo 1984, p. 93.
  70. ^ Donnelly 2005, p. 1.
  71. ^ Bhatia 1970, p. 6.
  72. ^ Walsh 2006, pp. 144–145.
  73. ^ a b c d Thakur et al. 2005, p. 585.
  74. ^ Desai 1984, p. 504.
  75. ^ a b Drèze 1991, pp. 32–33.
  76. ^ Portillo 2008.
  77. ^ Drèze 1991, p. 98.
  78. ^ Drèze 1991, p. 26.
  79. ^ Davis 2001, pp. 26–27.
  80. ^ McAlpin 1979, p. 148.
  81. ^ McAlpin 1979, pp. 149–50.
  82. ^ McAlpin 1979, p. 150.
  83. ^ McAlpin 1979, pp. 155–57.
  84. ^ Drèze 1991, p. 25.
  85. ^ Iqbal & You 2001, p. 13.
  86. ^ Devereux 2007, p. 5.
  87. ^ Drèze & Sen 1991, p. 9.
  88. ^ Drèze 1991, p. 35.
  89. ^ Prabhu 2007, p. 1.
  90. ^ National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development 2009, p. 30.
  91. ^ Somashekher 2004, p. 222.
  92. ^ Singla et al. 2004, p. 376.
  93. ^ Rorabacher 2010, pp. 442–443.
  94. ^ Singla et al. 2004, p. 379.
  95. ^ a b John & Nadgauda 2002, p. 261-2.
  96. ^ a b John & Nadgauda, p. 261.
  97. ^ BBC 2004, p. 1.
  98. ^ a b c Maitreyi 2010, p. 1.
  99. ^ John & Nadgauda 2002, p. 261.
  100. ^ Bagla 2001, p. 1.
  101. ^ John & Nadgauda 2002, p. 262.
  102. ^ Bagla 2001, p. 2.
  103. ^ Bagla 2001, p. 1-2.
  104. ^ American Association for the Advancement of Science et al. 1989, pp. 378–9.
  105. ^ Cuny & Hill 1999, p. 54.
  106. ^ Sainath 2010, p. 1.
  107. ^ American Association for the Advancement of Science et al. 1989, pp. 379.
  108. ^ Waal 1997, p. 15.
  109. ^ Drèze 1991, pp. 92–93.
  110. ^ Drèze 1991, pp. 93.
  111. ^ American Association for the Advancement of Science et al. 1989, pp. 380.
  112. ^ TNN 2010, p. 1.
  113. ^ Dhawan 2010, p. 1.
  114. ^ a b Massing 2003, p. 1.

References

  • American Association for the Advancement of Science; Indian National Science Academy; International Rice Research Institute; Indian Council of Agricultural Research (1989), Climate and food security: papers presented at the International Symposium on Climate Variability and Food Security in Developing Countries, 5–9 February 1987 New Delhi, India, Climate and Food Security: Papers Presented at the International Symposium on Climate Variability and Food Security in Developing Countries, 5–9 February 1987 New Delhi, India, vol. 1987, Manila: The Institute, ISBN 9789711042103
  • Bagla, Pallava (2001), India Girds for Famine Linked With Flowering of Bamboo, National Geographic News, retrieved 28 October 2010 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |day= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Balfour, Lady Beatty (1899), The History of Lord Lytton's Indian Administration, 1876 to 1880: Compiled From Letters and Official Papers, London: Longmans, OCLC 633822136
  • Banik, Dan (2007), Starvation and India's Democracy, London; New York: Routledge, ISBN 9780415407298
  • BBC (2004), Bamboo puts India on famine alert, British Broadcasting Corporation, retrieved 28 October 2010 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |day= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Bhatia, B.M (1970), India's Food Problem and Policy Since Independence, Somaiya Publications

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Further Reading

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