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{{Dablink|For other uses of "Turkish", see [[Turkish (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Dablink|For the broader concept of Turkic-speaking ethnic groups, see [[Turkic peoples]].}}
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'''Turkish people''', also known as the "'''Turks'''" ({{lang-tr| singular: Türk, plural: Türkler}}), are a subethnic group of the [[Turkic peoples]], primarily living in [[Turkey]] and in the former lands of the [[Ottoman Empire]] where [[Turkish minorities]] had been established in [[Bulgaria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Greece]], [[Iraq]], [[Kosovo]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Romania]] and [[Syria]]. In addition, due to migration, a large Turkish community has been established in [[Western Europe|Western]] [[Turks in Europe|Europe]] (particularly in Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium and Liechtenstein), as well as in [[Turks in Australia|Australia]], the [[Turks in the Middle East|Middle East]], North America and the former [[Turks in the former Soviet Union|Soviet Union]].
'''Turkish people''', also known as the "'''Turks'''" ({{lang-tr| singular: Türk, plural: Türkler}}), are a subethnic group of the [[Turkic peoples]], primarily living in [[Turkey]] and in the former lands of the [[Ottoman Empire]] where [[Turkish minorities]] had been established in [[Bulgaria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Greece]], [[Iraq]], [[Kosovo]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Romania]] and [[Syria]]. In addition, due to migration, a large Turkish community has been established in [[Western Europe|Western]] [[Turks in Europe|Europe]] (particularly in Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium and Liechtenstein), as well as in [[Turks in Australia|Australia]], the [[Turks in the Middle East|Middle East]], North America and the former [[Turks in the former Soviet Union|Soviet Union]].

Revision as of 21:06, 27 February 2011

Template:Turks Turkish people, also known as the "Turks" (Turkish: singular: Türk, plural: Türkler), are a subethnic group of the Turkic peoples, primarily living in Turkey and in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire where Turkish minorities had been established in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Iraq, Kosovo, Macedonia, Romania and Syria. In addition, due to migration, a large Turkish community has been established in Western Europe (particularly in Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium and Liechtenstein), as well as in Australia, the Middle East, North America and the former Soviet Union.

Etymology

The name Turk (Old Turkic: Türük[1][2] or Kök Türük[1][2] or Türük,[3] Chinese: 突厥, Pinyin: Tūjué, Wade-Giles: T'u-chüeh, Middle Chinese (Guangyun): [dʰuət-ki̯wɐt]) was first applied to a clan of tribal chieftains (known as Ashina) who overthrew the ruling Rouran Khaganate, and founded the nomadic Göktürk Khaganate ("Celestial Turks")[4] These nomads roamed in the Altai Mountains (and thus are known as Altaic peoples) in northern Mongolia and on the steppes of Central Asia.[5] Türks name refers to two distinct entities both the confederation of medieval Inner Asia, Kok Turks and the Turks of modern Turkey.[6]

The name Türk spread as a political designation during the period of Göktürk imperial hegemony to their subject Turkic and non-Turkic peoples. Subsequently, it was adopted as a generic ethnonym designating most if not all of the Turkish-speaking tribes in Central Asia by the Muslim peoples with whom they came into contact. The imperial era also provided a legacy of political and social organisation (with deep roots in pre-Türk Inner Asia) that in its Türk form became the common inheritance of the Turkic groupings of Central Asia.[7]

History

Main article: History of Turkey

Origins

Main article: Turkic migration
The Göktürk Empire in 600.

Turkic people originated in the vicinity of Altai in Central Asia.[8] The first nomadic empire founded in present day Mongolia was Xiongnu. Some academic scholars argue that ruling class of Xiongnu Empire was proto-Turkic.[9][10] Xiongnu is sometimes considered related to Huns who were Turkic-speaking peoples according to Richard Frucht.[11] The Kök Türk (or simply Turks) formed the first khanate which uses the word Turk in state name. Kök Türk khan Bilge Khan, his brother Kül Tegin and his prime minister Tonyukuk, immortalized their accomplishments with inscriptions in the Old Turkic script,[12] the oldest known Turkish writings.[13]

The migration of Turks to the country now called Turkey occurred during the main Turkic migration. In the migration period, Turkic language, confined in the sixth century AD to a small region exploded over a vast region including most parts of Central Asia, Turkestan, north of Black Sea, Anatolia, Iran between the sixth and thirteenth centuries.[14] Oghuz Turks who were called Turkomen after becoming Muslim were the main source for Turkic migration to Anatolia. The process was accelerated after the Battle of Manzikert victory of Seljuks against the Byzantines; Anatolia would be called Turchia in the West as early as the 12th century.[15] The Mongols invaded Transoxiana, Crimea, Iran, Azerbaijan and Anatolia; this caused Turkomens to move further to Western Anatolia.[16] In the case of the migrations in western Asia, the Turkic peoples assimilated some of the Uralic peoples encountered; Kipchak (later Mamluk) as well as the numerous Bulgar and Khazar speakers across the Asiatic steppe may have switched to the Turkish language, and ultimately Anatolian, the majority language of Anatolia, declined in favour of Turkish.[17] The Turkish ethnicity emerged gradually during the process of settlement of the Turcomens in Turkey; Turkomens were designated Turks later.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]

Seljuk era

Main article: Great Seljuq Empire
The Seljuk Empire at its zenith upon the death of Malik Shah I in 1092.

The Seljuks (Turkish Selçuklular; Persian: سلجوقيان Ṣaljūqīyān; Arabic سلجوق Saljūq, or السلاجقة al-Salājiqa) were a Turkish tribe from Central Asia.[26] In 1037, they entered Persia and established their first powerful state, called by historians the Empire of the Great Seljuks. They captured Baghdad in 1055 and a relatively small contingent of warriors (around 5,000 by some estimates) moved into eastern Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuks engaged the armies of the Byzantine Empire at Manzikert (Malazgirt), north of Lake Van. The Byzantines experienced minor casualties despite the fact that Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes was captured. With no potent Byzantine force to stop them, the Seljuks took control of most of Eastern and Central Anatolia.[27] They established their capital at Konya and ruled what would be known as the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. The success of the Seljuk Turks stimulated a response from Latin Europe in the form of the First Crusade.[28] A counteroffensive launched in 1097 by the Byzantines with the aid of the Crusaders dealt the Seljuks a decisive defeat. Konya fell to the Crusaders, and after a few years of campaigning, Byzantine rule was restored in the western third of Anatolia. Although a Turkish revival in the 1140s nullified much of the Christian gains, greater damage was done to Byzantine security by dynastic strife in Constantinople in which the largely French contingents of the Fourth Crusade and their Venetian allies intervened. In 1204, these Crusaders conquered Constantinople and installed Count Baldwin of Flanders in the Byzantine capital as emperor of the so-called Latin Empire of Constantinople, dismembering the old realm into tributary states where West European feudal institutions were transplanted intact. Independent Greek kingdoms were established at Nicaea (present-day Iznik), Trebizond (present-day Trabzon), and Epirus from remnant Byzantine provinces. Turks allied with Greeks in Anatolia against the Latins, and Greeks with Turks against the Mongols. In 1261, Michael Palaeologus of Nicaea drove the Latins from Constantinople and restored the Byzantine Empire. Seljuk Rum survived in the late 13th century as a vassal state of the Mongol Empire, who had already subjugated the Abbasid Caliphate at Baghdad. Mongol influence in the region had disappeared by the 1330s, leaving behind gazi emirates competing for supremacy. From the chaotic conditions that prevailed throughout the Middle East, however, a new power was to emerge in Anatolia, the Ottoman Turks.[29]

Ilkhanate rule and Beyliks era

Main articles: Sultanate of Rûm, Anatolian beyliks, and Mongol conquest of Anatolia

Anatolian Beyliks (Turkish: Anadolu Beylikleri, Ottoman Turkish: Tevâif-i mülûk) were small Turkish principalities governed by Beys, which were founded across Anatolia at the end of the 11th century. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum collapsed after Mongol invasion and Anatolia was administered by Mongol military governors after Mongol conquest.[30] However, Anatolia was separated into several small regions under the domination of different beyliks (principalities) from the 14th century to the beginning of the 16th century. Eventually, the Ottoman principality which was established in Eskişehir, Bilecik and Bursa areas, subjugated other principalities and restored political unity over a large part of Anatolia.[31]

Ottoman era

Main article: Ottoman Empire
Mahmud II effectively started the modernization of the Ottoman Empire and paved the way for the Tanzimat reforms which also influenced the modern Republic of Turkey.
The Ottoman Empire 1299 – 1923

The Ottoman Empire (Old Ottoman Turkish: دولت عالیه عثمانیه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was known as the Turkish Empire or Turkey by its contemporaries. (See the other names of the Ottoman State.) Starting as a small tribe whose territory bordered on the Byzantine frontier, the Ottoman Turks built an empire that was at the height of its power in the 16th century. The empire spanned three continents, controlling much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.

As the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum weakened in the late 13th century, warrior chieftains claimed the lands of Northwestern Anatolia, along the Byzantine Empire's borders. Ertuğrul gazi ruled the lands around Söğüt, a town between Bursa and Eskisehir. Upon his death in 1281, his son, Osman, from whom the Ottoman dynasty and the Empire took its name, expanded the territory to 16,000 square kilometers. Osman I, who was given the nickname "Kara" (Turkish for black) for his courage,[32] extended the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the edge of the Byzantine Empire. He shaped the early political development of the state and moved the Ottoman capital to Bursa. By 1452, the Ottoman Empire controlled almost all of the former Byzantine lands except Constantinople. On May 29, 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror captured Constantinople after a 53-day siege and proclaimed that the city was now the new capital of his Ottoman Empire.[33] Sultan Mehmed's first duty was to rejuvenate the city economically, creating the Grand Bazaar and inviting the fleeing Orthodox and Catholic inhabitants to return. Captured prisoners were freed to settle in the city whilst provincial governors in Rumelia and Anatolia were ordered to send four thousand families to settle in the city, whether Muslim, Christian or Jew, to form a unique cosmopolitan society. [34]

During the growth of the Ottoman Empire (also known as the Pax Ottomana), Selim I extended Ottoman sovereignty southward, conquering Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. He also gained recognition as guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina; he accepted pious the title of The Servant of The Two Holy Shrines.[35][36] Suleiman I was known in the West as "Suleiman the Magnificent"[37] and in the East, as "the Lawgiver" (in Turkish Kanuni; Arabic: القانونى, al‐Qānūnī), for his complete restructuring of the Ottoman legal system. The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent is known as the "Ottoman golden age".[38]

In the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire was as powerful as European states but it was superior no more.[citation needed] Reformist Sultans such as Mahmud II modernized the Empire.[39] However, they were unable to stop decline. Eventually, after World War I, the Ottoman Empire came to an end.[38]

The Republic of Turkey

Main article: History of the Republic of Turkey
File:Ataturk attends a university class.jpg
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk visits the reorganized Istanbul University on December 15, 1930.
Eighteen female MPs joined the Turkish Parliament in 1935, at a time when women in a significant number of other European countries had no voting rights.

The Republic of Turkey was born from the disastrous World War I defeat of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman war hero, Mustafa Kemal Pasha (who was later given the surname Atatürk by the Turkish Parliament with the Surname Law of 1934), sailed from Istanbul to Samsun in May 1919 to start the Turkish liberation movement; he organized an effective fighting force in Anatolia, and rallied the people to the nationalist cause. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.[40] By 1923 the nationalist government had driven out the invading armies; replaced the Treaty of Sèvres with the Treaty of Lausanne and abolished the Ottoman State; promulgated a republican constitution; and established Turkey's new capital in Ankara.[41] Atatürk implemented series of political, legal, cultural, social and economic reforms that were designed to modernize the new Republic of Turkey into a democratic and secular nation-state and increase the role of woman in society. During a meeting in the early days of the new republic, Atatürk proclaimed:

To the women: Win for us the battle of education and you will do yet more for your country than we have been able to do. It is to you that I appeal.
To the men: If henceforward the women do not share in the social life of the nation, we shall never attain to our full development. We shall remain irremediably backward, incapable of treating on equal terms with the civilizations of the West.[42]

— Mustafa Kemal

Genetics

Main article: Genetic origins of the Turkish people
File:Genetic relations of European nations.jpg
Genetic kinships of European nations. Turks are in dark green (TR)

It is difficult to understand the complex cultural and demographic dynamics of the Turkic speaking groups that have shaped the Anatolian landscape for the last millennium.[43] During the Bronze Age the population of Anatolia expanded, reaching an estimated level of 12 million during the late Byzantine Empire period. Such a large pre-existing Anatolian population would have reduced the impact by the subsequent arrival of Turkic speaking groups from Seljuk Persia, whose ethno-linguistic roots could be traced back to the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea basin in Central Asia.[44][45] The Seljuk Turks were the main Turkic people who moved into Anatolia, starting from the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.[46][47] Around 1,000,000 Turkic migrants settled in Anatolia during the 12th and 13th centuries.[48]

The question of to what extent a gene flow from Central Asia, via Persia, to Anatolia has contributed to the current gene pool of the Turkish people, and the role of the 11th century invasion by Seljuk Turks, has been the subject of several studies. It is concluded that aboriginal Anatolian groups may have given rise to the present-day Turkish population. DNA analysis research studies suggest that the Anatolians do not significantly differ from other Mediterraneans, indicating that while the Seljuk Turks carried out a permanent territorial conquest with strong cultural, linguistic and religious significance, it is barely genetically detectable.[49]

Geographic distribution

See also: Turkish population and Turkish diaspora

Turks primarily live in Turkey; however, when the borders of the Ottoman Empire became smaller after World War I and the new Turkish Republic was founded, many Turks chose to stay outside of Turkey's borders. Since then, some of them have migrated to Turkey but there are still significant minorities of Turks living in different countries such as in Northern Cyprus (Turkish Cypriots), Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Macedonia, the Dobruja region of Romania, Pakistan, Kosovo, Syria, India, China, Central Asia, and Iraq.

Turks in Turkey

See also: Regions of Turkey, Provinces of Turkey, Districts of Turkey, and List of cities in Turkey

People who identify themselves as ethnic Turks comprise 80%[50] of Turkey's population.[51]

Turks in Europe

See also: Turks in Europe

As a legacy of the Ottoman Turkish Empire, there are significant Turkish minorities in Europe such as the Turks in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Kosovo and the Republic of Macedonia.

The post-World War II migration of Turks to Europe began with ‘guest workers’ who arrived under the terms of a Labour Export Agreement with Germany in October 1961, followed by a similar agreement with the Netherlands, Belgium and Austria in 1964; France in 1965 and Sweden in 1967. As one Turkish observer noted, ‘it has now been over 40 years and a Turk who went to Europe at the age of 25 has nearly reached the age of 70. His children have reached the age of 45 and their children have reached the age of 20’.[52]

Despite the United Kingdom not being part of the Labour Export Agreement, it is still a major hub for Turkish emigrants, and with a population of half a million Turks[53] (an estimated 100,000 Turkish nationals and 130,000 nationals of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus currently live in the UK. These figures, however, do not include the much larger numbers of Turkish speakers who have been born or have obtained British nationality),[54] it is home to Europe's third largest Turkish community. High immigration has resulted in the Turkish language being the seventh most commonly spoken language in the United Kingdom.[55]

Due to the high rate of Turks in Europe, the Turkish language is also now home to one of the largest group of pupils after German-speakers, and the largest non-European language spoken in the European Union. Turkish in Germany is often used not only by members of its own community but also by people with a non-Turkish background. Especially in urban areas, it functions as a peer group vernacular for children and adolescents.[56]

Turks in the Americas

Anglo-America

The US Census reported in 2006 that approximately 170,000 Americans identify as having at least partial Turkish ancestry,[57] while the Encyclopedia of Cleveland History states that there is an estimated 500,000 Turks living in the United States;[58] the largest Turkish communities are found in Paterson, New York City (i.e. Brooklyn and Staten Island), Long Island, Cleveland, Chicago, Houston, Miami, Washington D.C. (mostly in Northern Virginia), Boston (esp. the suburb of Watertown), Philadelphia, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Since the 1970s, the number of Turkish immigrants has risen to more than 4,000 per year. There is also a growing Turkish population in Canada, Turkish immigrants have settled mainly in Montreal and Toronto, although there are small Turkish communities in Calgary, Edmonton, London, Ottawa, and Vancouver. The population of Turkish Canadians in Metropolitan Toronto may be as large as 5,000.[59]

Latin America

Turkish immigrants can be found in smaller numbers in Latin America, limited to Chile (about 1,000), Brazil (estimated at 5,000) and Mexico (fewer than 2,000). [citation needed] They are not to be confused with heavily numerous Christian Arab immigrants called "Turcos", an inaccurate name for Lebanese and Syrian refugees, due to the nickname came from their "Turkish" nationality passports on arrival, whom fled World War I. in the Ottoman Empire in the 1910s and 1920s. Both ethnic Turk and smaller "Turco" Arab communities can be found in South America, Central America and the Caribbean. [citation needed]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Turkey

Turkish people have a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Oğuz Turkic and Anatolian, Ottoman, and Western culture and traditions since the start of Westernization of the Ottoman Empire. Turkish culture is mixed with those of the peoples inhabiting the areas of their migration from Central Asia to West.[60][61]

Architecture

Main article: Ottoman architecture
Safranbolu was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1994 due to its well-preserved Ottoman era houses and architecture.

Turkish architecture reached its peak during the Ottoman period. Ottoman architecture, influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Islamic architecture, came to develop a style all of its own.[62] Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as a synthesis of the architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.[63]

During the zenith of the Sultanate of Rum, Seljuk architects undertook extensive public works projects. Using the abundant Anatolian stone and clay, they built mosques, medreses, and türbes. To safeguard their profitable trade in silks, spices and to provide rest for merchants, the Seljuk’s built over 100 kervansarays along Anatolian highways, each spaced a day’s ride away from the next. These rest stops featured mosques, storage rooms, stables, coffeehouses, hamams, private rooms and dormitories. The most impressive of its kind is the Sultan Han outside Kayseri. Seljuk buildings were characterised by their elaborate stone carvings. In addition to carvings, the Seljuk’s enhanced their mosques with glazed earthenware (faience) which was used to cover walls and minarets with the best examples at Konya in the Karatay Medrese.[64]

File:Waterfront houses on the Bosphorus.jpg
Traditional waterfront houses, called yalı, on the Bosporus

The first Ottoman capital, Bursa, is a museum of 14th and 15th century Ottoman architecture. With the capital of Istanbul in 1453, Ottoman architects were challenged to exceed the vaults and pendentives of the Hagia Sophia's dome. Ottoman architecture reached its peak under the unprecedented benefaction of Suleiman the Magnificent. During his rule alone, over 80 major mosques and hundreds of other buildings were constructed. Divan Yolu, Istanbul’s processional avenue, boasts a collection of these structural wonders. The master architect, Mimar Sinan served Suleyman and his sons as Chief Court Architect from 1538–1588, during which time he created a unified style for all Istanbul and for much of the empire.[65]

Many Ottoman mosques stand at the centre of a ‘külliye’ (complex) designed to serve all of a community’s needs. Some külliyes in Istanbul are the Fatih külliye (1463–70), the Bayezid Mosque (after 1491), the Selim Mosque (1522), the Şehzade külliye (1548), and the Süleyman külliye (after 1550). [66]

Arts and calligraphy

Music

Main article: Music of Turkey
" Katibim (Üsküdar'a Gider iken)"
An example of Turkish classical music.
"Dayan Yalnızlığım" (Emre Aydın)
An example of Turkish rock music.
Mandalinalar (Işın Karaca)
An example of Turkish pop music.
Problems playing these files? See media help.

The roots of traditional music in Turkey span centuries to a time when the Seljuk Turks colonized Anatolia and Persia in the 11th century and contains elements of both Turkic and pre-Turkic influences. Much of its modern popular music can trace its roots to the emergence in the early 1930s drive for Westernization.[67]

Traditional music in Turkey falls into two main genres; classical art music and folk music. Turkish classical music is characterized by an Ottoman elite culture and influenced lyrically by neighbouring regions and Ottoman provinces.[68] Earlier forms are sometimes termed as saray music in Turkish, meaning royal court music, indicating the source of the genre comes from Ottoman royalty as patronage and composer.[69] Neo-classical or postmodern versions of this traditional genre are termed as art music or sanat musikisi, though often it is unofficially termed as alla turca. In addition, from the saray or royal courts came the Ottoman military band, Mehter takımı in Turkish, considered to be the oldest type of military marching band in the world. It was also the forefather of modern Western percussion bands and has been described as the father of Western military music.[70]

Turkish folk music is the music of Turkish-speaking rural communities of Anatolia, the Balkans, and Middle East. While Turkish folk music contains definitive traces of the Central Asian Turkic cultures, it has also strongly influenced and been influenced by many other indigenous cultures. Religious music in Turkey is sometimes grouped with folk music due to the tradition of the wandering minstrel or aşık (pronounced ashuk), but its influences on Sufism due to the spritiual Mevlevi sect arguably grants it special status.[71] It has been suggested the distinction between the two major genres comes during the Tanzîmat period of Ottoman era, when Turkish classical music was the music played in the Ottoman palaces and folk music was played in the villages.[72]

Language and Literature

Main articles: Turkish language and Turkish literature
Atatürk introducing the Turkish alphabet to the people of Sivas. September 20, 1928. (Cover of the French L'Illustration magazine)

The Turkish language is a member of the ancient Oghuz subdivision of Turkic languages, which in turn is a branch of the proposed Altaic language family.[73][74][75] About 40% of Turkic language speakers are Turkish speakers.[76]

With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia, covering a vast geographical region stretching from Siberia to Europe and the Mediterranean. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, Oghuz Turkic—the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into Anatolia during the 11th century.[77] Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from the Kara-Khanid Khanate, published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Arabic: Dīwānu'l-Luġat at-Turk).[78] In 1277 Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey declared Turkish as the sole official language of the Karamanoğlu Beylik in Anatolia.

After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey and the script reform, the Turkish Language Association (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly-established association was to initiate a language reform to replace loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents.[79] By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries.[80]

Istanbul Turkish is established as the official standard language of Turkey. Turkish is the official language of Turkey and is one of the official languages of Cyprus. It also has official (but not primary) status in the Prizren District of Kosovo and several municipalities of Republic of Macedonia, depending on the concentration of Turkish-speaking local population.[81]

The literature of the Turkish Republic emerged largely from the pre-independence National Literature movement, with its roots simultaneously in the Turkish folk tradition and in the Western notion of progress. One important change to Turkish literature was enacted in 1928, when Mustafa Kemal initiated the creation and dissemination of a modified version of the Latin alphabet to replace the Arabic alphabet based Ottoman script. Over time, this change, together with changes in Turkey's system of education, would lead to more widespread literacy in the country.[82] Turkish literature is known for such notable writers as Orhanb Pamuk, Yaşar Kemal, Orhan Veli, and Sait Faik.

File:Sait faik abasıyanık heykeli.JPG
Sait Faik Abasıyanık

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Turkey and Secularism in Turkey

Secularism in Turkey was introduced with the Turkish Constitution of 1924, and later Atatürk's Reforms set the administrative and political requirements to create a modern, secular state aligned with the Kemalist ideology. Thirteen years after its introduction, laïcité (February 5, 1937) was explicitly stated as a property of the State in the second article of the Turkish constitution. Therefore the current Turkish constitution neither recognizes an official religion nor promotes any while majority of citizens subscribe to Islam.[83]

References and notes

  1. ^ a b Kultegin's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments
  2. ^ a b Bilge Kagan's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments
  3. ^ Tonyukuk's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG Bain Tsokto Monument
  4. ^ Peoples of Western Asia By Marshall Cavendish Corporation - "An Introduction to the History of the Turkish Peoples, p. 121-122
  5. ^ Deny (2000). History of the Turkish Peoples in the Pre-Islamic Period. Schwarz. p. 108. ISBN 9783879972838. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ S. Frederick Starr, Xinjiang: China's Muslim borderland, M.E. Sharpe, 2004, ISBN 9780765613189, p. 37.
  7. ^ Ambros/Andrews/Balim/Golden/Gökalp/Karamustafa, Turks, in Encyclopaedia of Islam, online ed., ret. 2009
  8. ^ Mallory, J. P., In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth., (London: Thames & Hudson, 1991), pp. 152.
  9. ^ Wink 2002: 60-61
  10. ^ Hucker 1975: 136
  11. ^ Frucht, Richard C., Eastern Europe, (ABC-CLIO, 2005), pp. 744.
  12. ^ Scharlipp, Wolfgang (2000). An Introduction to the Old Turkish Runic Inscriptions. Verlag auf dem Ruffel., Engelschoff. ISBN 393384700X.
  13. ^ Lewis, Bernard, The emergence of modern Turkey, (Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1968)
  14. ^ Mallory, J. P., In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth., (London: Thames & Hudson, 1991), pp. 147.
  15. ^ James Bainbridge (2009-04-01). Turkey - Google Kitaplar. Books.google.com.tr. ISBN 9781741049275. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
  16. ^ Halil Inalcık. "Halil Inalcik. "The Question of the Emergence of the Ottoman State"". h-net.org. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
  17. ^ Mallory, J. P., In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth., (London: Thames & Hudson, 1991), pp. 261.
  18. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=Su_xVd0gTOcC&pg=PA196&dq=turkic+uralic+people&hl=en&ei=DVpeTf6ZK9KJ5Ab2ltzYCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=turkic%20uralic%20people&f=false
  19. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=Cp-tB08yd2EC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
  20. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=EvCfTIsTOskC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
  21. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=WubvXTkjoLUC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
  22. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC&pg=PA273&dq=turks+contact+with+uralic+people&hl=en&ei=G1xeTYqvJsas8QPlsPj5Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
  23. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=z9XlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA166&dq=magyars+turks&hl=en&ei=KV5eTdOPGciv8gOuwrRZ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=magyars%20turks&f=false
  24. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=aXuxw070d-wC&pg=PA11&dq=magyars+turks&hl=en&ei=KV5eTdOPGciv8gOuwrRZ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=magyars%20turks&f=false
  25. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=cYQfAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
  26. ^ Concise Britannica Online Seljuq Dynasty article
  27. ^ The History of the Seljuq Turks: From the Jami Al-Tawarikh (LINK)
  28. ^ Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0192853643.
  29. ^ Gürpınar, Doğan (2004). "THE SELJUKS OF RUM IN TURKISH REPUBLICAN NATIONALIST HISTORIOGRAPH" (PDF). Sabancı University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-06-11. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  30. ^ Inalcik. Emergence of Ottoman State
  31. ^ Fleet, Kate (1999). "European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State" (PDF). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2008-06-11. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  32. ^ Template:Tr Sultan Osman I, Turkish Ministry of Culture website.
  33. ^ D. Nicolle, Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium, 32
  34. ^ Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1977, pp. 307
  35. ^ Yavuz Sultan Selim Government Retrieved on 2007-09-16
  36. ^ The Classical Age, 1453-1600 Retrieved on 2007-09-16
  37. ^ Merriman.
  38. ^ a b BBC - Religions - Islam: Ottoman Empire (1301-1922)>
  39. ^ Anscombe, Frederick (2010). "Islam and the Age of Ottoman Reform*". Past and Present. 208–1: 159–189. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |link= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |second= ignored (help)
  40. ^ Mango, Andrew (2000). Ataturk. Overlook. ISBN 1-5856-7011-1.
  41. ^ Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey, 50
  42. ^ Kinross, Ataturk, The Rebirth of a Nation, p. 343
  43. ^ Gokcumen O and Schurr T. Genler, Göçler ve Anadolu. Atlas Magazine. 2008
  44. ^ Hum Genet (2004) 114 : 127–148 Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia, (Cengiz Cinnioglu at all.), pg. 135
  45. ^ Late Medieval Balkan and Asia Minor Population.Josiah C. Russell.Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Oct., 1960), pp. 265-274
  46. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Oguz Article
  47. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Seljuq Article
  48. ^ Peter B. Golden. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East, 1992, S. 224-225.
  49. ^ (2001) HLA alleles and haplotypes in the Turkish population: relatedness to Kurds, Armenians and other Mediterraneans Tissue Antigens 57 (4), 308–317
  50. ^ KONDA Research and Consultancy, Social Structure Survey 2006
  51. ^ Country Studies: Turkey-Turks
  52. ^ Gogolin, Ingrid (2005). "Turks in Europe: Why are we afraid?" (PDF). The Foreign Policy Centre. Retrieved 2008-06-10. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  53. ^ Federation of Turkish Associations UK. "BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FEDERATION OF TURKISH ASSOCIATIONS IN UK" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-01-14.
  54. ^ Embassy of the Republic of Turkey in London
  55. ^ BBC Voices Multilingual Nation. "Turkish today by Viv Edwards". Retrieved 2008-10-29.
  56. ^ Twigg, Stephen (2002). "LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND NEW MINORITIES IN EUROPE" (PDF). Language Policy Division. Retrieved 2008-06-10. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  57. ^ US Census. "2006 American Community Survey, Total Ancestry Reported". Retrieved 2010-04-22.
  58. ^ Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. "Immigration and Ethnicity: Turks". Retrieved 2008-07-09.
  59. ^ Turkish Americans
  60. ^ Kaya, İbrahim (2003). Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-8532-3898-7.
  61. ^ Royal Academy of Arts (2005). "Turks - A Journey of a Thousand Years: 600–1600". Royal Academy of Arts. Retrieved 2006-12-12.
  62. ^ Necipoğlu, Gülru (1995). Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 12. Leiden : E.J. Brill. p. 60. ISBN 9789004103146. OCLC 33228759. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
  63. ^ Grabar, Oleg (1985). Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 3. Leiden : E.J. Brill,. ISBN 9004076115. Retrieved 2008-07-07.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  64. ^ Davis, Ben (2002). Let's Go Turkey. Macmillan. ISBN 9780312305970.
  65. ^ Levine, Lynn (2006). Frommer's Turkey. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 9780471785569.
  66. ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295642/Islamic-arts/13859/Ottoman-art?anchor=ref316989
  67. ^ Stokes, Martin (2000). Sounds of Anatolia. Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0., pp 396-410.
  68. ^ "Traditional Music in Turkey". Medieval.org. Retrieved May 20, 2004. The Ottoman Empire included substantial territory which had been under Byzantine or Arabic control, and the substratum of traditional music in Turkey was conditioned by that history.
  69. ^ "Suleyman the Magnificent". HyperHistory Biographies. Retrieved April 3, 2006. During his rule as sultan, the Ottoman Empire reached its peak in power and prosperity. Suleyman the Magnificent filled his palace with music and poetry and came to write many compositions of his own.
  70. ^ "Ottoman Military Music". MilitaryMusic.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2003. Retrieved February 11, 2003.
  71. ^ "Introduction to Sufi Music and Ritual in Turkey". Middle East Studies Association of North America. Retrieved December 18, 1995. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) The tradition of regional variations in the character of folk music prevails all around Anatolia and Thrace even today. The troubadour or minstrel (singer-poets) known as aşık contributed anonymously to this genre for ages.
  72. ^ "The Ottoman Music". Tanrıkorur, Cinuçen (Abridged and translated by Dr. Savaş Ş. Barkçin). Retrieved June 26, 2000. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  73. ^ Georg, S., Michalove, P.A., Manaster Ramer, A., Sidwell, P.J.: "Telling general linguists about Altaic", Journal of Linguistics 35 (1999): 65-98 Online abstract and link to free pdf
  74. ^ Altaic Family Tree
  75. ^ Linguistic Lineage for Turkish
  76. ^ Katzner
  77. ^ Findley
  78. ^ Soucek
  79. ^ See Lewis (2002) for a thorough treatment of the Turkish language reform.
  80. ^ http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/Linguistics/Theses09/smoya1%20LingThesis%20final%20pdf.pdf
  81. ^ Palin, Michael (2007). Kosovo. The Globe Pequot Press. p. 32. ISBN 1841621994.
  82. ^ Lester 1997; Wolf-Gazo 1996
  83. ^ Çarkoǧlu, Ali (2004). Religion and Politics in Turkey. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-4153-4831-5.

Bibliography

Further reading

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