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Until the 20th century, publishing houses and printers in many countries used single, but enlarged, spaces between sentences.<ref>[[#Mac85|MacKellar 1885]]. p. 78; [[#Chi11|University of Chicago Press 1911 ''Chicago Manual of Style'']]. p. 101.</ref> There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method—printers in some countries preferred single spacing.<ref>[[#Fel09|Felici 2009]]</ref> This was ''[[History of sentence spacing#French and English spacing|French spacing]]''—a term synonymous with single space sentence spacing until the late 20th century.<ref>In the 1990s, some print and Web sources began referring to double sentence spacing as "French spacing", leading to some ambiguity with the term. See for example, [[#Eck94|Eckersley et al. 1994]]. p. 46, and [[#Hal06|Haley 2006]].</ref> ''Double spacing'',<ref>[[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 80; [[#Bri04|Bringhurst 2004]]. p. 28; [[#Wal04|Walsh 2004]]. p. 3; [[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. 13.</ref> or placing two spaces between sentences (sometimes referred to as ''English spacing''), came into widespread use with the introduction of the [[typewriter]] in the late 19th&nbsp;century.<ref name="Bringhurst 2004. p. 28">[[#Bri04|Bringhurst 2004]]. p. 28.</ref> It was felt that with the [[monospaced font]] used by a typewriter, "a single word space&nbsp;... was not wide enough to create a sufficient space between sentences"<ref name="Felici 2003. p. 80">[[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 80.</ref> and that extra space might help signal the end of a sentence.<ref name="Jury 2009. p. 58">[[#Jur09|Jury 2009]]. p. 58.</ref> This caused a widespread change in practice. From the late 19th century, printers were told to ignore their typesetting manuals in favor of typewriter spacing; [[Monotype Corporation|Monotype]] and [[Linotype machine|Linotype]] operators used double sentence spacing<ref name="Jury 2009. p. 58"/> and this was widely taught in typing classes.<ref>[[#Bri04|Bringhurst 2004]]. p. 28; [[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. pp. 13–14; [[#Str10|Strizver 2010]].</ref>
Until the 20th century, publishing houses and printers in many countries used single, but enlarged, spaces between sentences.<ref>[[#Mac85|MacKellar 1885]]. p. 78; [[#Chi11|University of Chicago Press 1911 ''Chicago Manual of Style'']]. p. 101.</ref> There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method—printers in some countries preferred single spacing.<ref>[[#Fel09|Felici 2009]]</ref> This was ''[[History of sentence spacing#French and English spacing|French spacing]]''—a term synonymous with single space sentence spacing until the late 20th century.<ref>In the 1990s, some print and Web sources began referring to double sentence spacing as "French spacing", leading to some ambiguity with the term. See for example, [[#Eck94|Eckersley et al. 1994]]. p. 46, and [[#Hal06|Haley 2006]].</ref> ''Double spacing'',<ref>[[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 80; [[#Bri04|Bringhurst 2004]]. p. 28; [[#Wal04|Walsh 2004]]. p. 3; [[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. 13.</ref> or placing two spaces between sentences (sometimes referred to as ''English spacing''), came into widespread use with the introduction of the [[typewriter]] in the late 19th&nbsp;century.<ref name="Bringhurst 2004. p. 28">[[#Bri04|Bringhurst 2004]]. p. 28.</ref> It was felt that with the [[monospaced font]] used by a typewriter, "a single word space&nbsp;... was not wide enough to create a sufficient space between sentences"<ref name="Felici 2003. p. 80">[[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 80.</ref> and that extra space might help signal the end of a sentence.<ref name="Jury 2009. p. 58">[[#Jur09|Jury 2009]]. p. 58.</ref> This caused a widespread change in practice. From the late 19th century, printers were told to ignore their typesetting manuals in favor of typewriter spacing; [[Monotype Corporation|Monotype]] and [[Linotype machine|Linotype]] operators used double sentence spacing<ref name="Jury 2009. p. 58"/> and this was widely taught in typing classes.<ref>[[#Bri04|Bringhurst 2004]]. p. 28; [[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. pp. 13–14; [[#Str10|Strizver 2010]].</ref>


With the introduction of [[proportional font]]s in [[computer]]s, double sentence spacing became obsolete{{POV-statement|date=January 2011}}.<ref>[[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 80; [[#Fog08|Fogarty 2008]]. p. 85; [[#Jur09|Jury 2009]]. p. 56; [[#Str10|Strizver 2010]]; [[#Wal04|Walsh 2004]]. p. 3; [[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. pp. 13–14.</ref> These proportional fonts now assign appropriate horizontal space to each character (including punctuation marks), and can modify [[kerning]] values to adjust spaces following [[terminal punctuation]], so there is less need to manually increase spacing between sentences.<ref name="Felici 2003. p. 80"/> From around 1950, single sentence spacing became standard in books, magazines and newspapers.<ref>[[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. pp. 13–14. This refers to professionally published works, as it is possible for individual authors to publish works through desktop publishing systems. Williams states, "I guarantee this: never in your life have you read professionally set text printed since 1942 that used two spaces after each [[Full stop|period]]." See also, [[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 81; [[#Str10|Strizver 2010]]; [[#Wei09|Weiderkehr 2009]]; [[#Wil95|Williams 1995]]. p. 4.</ref> Regardless, many still believe that double spaces are correct. The debate continues,<ref name="Felici 2009"/> notably on the [[World Wide Web]]—as many people use search engines to try to find what is correct.<ref name="Rosendorf 2010">[[#Ros10|Rosendorf 2010]].</ref> Many people prefer double sentence spacing for informal use because that was how they were taught to type.<ref name="Strizver 2010">[[#Str10|Strizver 2010]].</ref> There is a debate on which convention is more legible, and the few recent direct studies have produced inconclusive results.<ref>[[#Llo09|Lloyd and Hallahan 2009]]. "During times when many disciplines that recommend the APA's Publication Manual [6th ed., 2009] are advocating evidence-based decisions, it's noteworthy, we think, that these discussions of the rationale for using two spaces at the end of sentences (and after colons) do not appear to be based on scientific examination of the hypothesis that two spaces makes manuscripts more readable."</ref>
After the introduction of [[proportional font]]s in [[computer]]s, from around 1950, single sentence spacing became standard in books, magazines and newspapers.<ref>[[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. pp. 13–14. This refers to professionally published works, as it is possible for individual authors to publish works through desktop publishing systems. Williams states, "I guarantee this: never in your life have you read professionally set text printed since 1942 that used two spaces after each [[Full stop|period]]." See also, [[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 81; [[#Str10|Strizver 2010]]; [[#Wei09|Weiderkehr 2009]]; [[#Wil95|Williams 1995]]. p. 4.</ref> Regardless, many still believe that double spaces are correct. The debate continues,<ref name="Felici 2009"/> notably on the [[World Wide Web]]—as many people use search engines to try to find what is correct.<ref name="Rosendorf 2010">[[#Ros10|Rosendorf 2010]].</ref> Many people prefer double sentence spacing for informal use because that was how they were taught to type.<ref name="Strizver 2010">[[#Str10|Strizver 2010]].</ref> There is a debate on which convention is more legible, and the few recent direct studies have produced inconclusive results.<ref>[[#Llo09|Lloyd and Hallahan 2009]]. "During times when many disciplines that recommend the APA's Publication Manual [6th ed., 2009] are advocating evidence-based decisions, it's noteworthy, we think, that these discussions of the rationale for using two spaces at the end of sentences (and after colons) do not appear to be based on scientific examination of the hypothesis that two spaces makes manuscripts more readable."</ref>


Most modern literature on [[typography]] says that double spacing is wrong,<ref>[[#Bri04|Bringhurst 2004]]. p. 28; [[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 80; [[#Str10|Strizver 2010]]; [[#Spi93|Spiekermann and Ginger 1993]]. p. 123; [[#Dow95|Dowding 1995]]. 29.</ref> but some non-typographical sources indicate that it could be used on a typewriter or with a monospaced font.<ref name="Williams 2003. p. 13">[[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. p. 13.</ref> The majority of [[style guides]] opt for a single space after terminal punctuation for final and published work, with a few permitting double spacing in draft manuscripts and for specific circumstances based on personal preference.<ref>[[#Fog08|Fogarty 2008]]. p. 85; [[#Leo09|Leonard, et al. 2009]]. A number of style and language guides provide direction on this topic. Examples of style guides that recommend single sentence spacing include: ''[[the Chicago Manual of Style]]'' 16th Edition (2010), the ''[[Hart's Rules|Oxford Style Manual]]'' (2003), Kate Turabian's ''[[A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations]]'' 7th Edition (2007), the [[American Psychological Association|American Psychological Association's]] (APA's) ''[[Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association]]'' 6th Edition (2010, Second Printing), and the [[Modern Language Association|Modern Language Association's]] ''[[The MLA Style Manual|MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing]]'' 3rd Edition (2008). For further information, see [[Sentence spacing in language and style guides]].</ref> Grammar and design guides, including Web design guides, provide similar guidance.<ref>[[#Fog08|Fogarty 2008]]. p. 85; [[#Shu89|Shushan and Wright 1989]]. p. 34; [[#Wal04|Walsh 2004]]. p. 3.</ref>
Most modern literature on [[typography]] says that double spacing is wrong,<ref>[[#Bri04|Bringhurst 2004]]. p. 28; [[#Fel03|Felici 2003]]. p. 80; [[#Str10|Strizver 2010]]; [[#Spi93|Spiekermann and Ginger 1993]]. p. 123; [[#Dow95|Dowding 1995]]. 29.</ref> but some non-typographical sources indicate that it could be used on a typewriter or with a monospaced font.<ref name="Williams 2003. p. 13">[[#Wil03|Williams 2003]]. p. 13.</ref> The majority of [[style guides]] opt for a single space after terminal punctuation for final and published work, with a few permitting double spacing in draft manuscripts and for specific circumstances based on personal preference.<ref>[[#Fog08|Fogarty 2008]]. p. 85; [[#Leo09|Leonard, et al. 2009]]. A number of style and language guides provide direction on this topic. Examples of style guides that recommend single sentence spacing include: ''[[the Chicago Manual of Style]]'' 16th Edition (2010), the ''[[Hart's Rules|Oxford Style Manual]]'' (2003), Kate Turabian's ''[[A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations]]'' 7th Edition (2007), the [[American Psychological Association|American Psychological Association's]] (APA's) ''[[Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association]]'' 6th Edition (2010, Second Printing), and the [[Modern Language Association|Modern Language Association's]] ''[[The MLA Style Manual|MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing]]'' 3rd Edition (2008). For further information, see [[Sentence spacing in language and style guides]].</ref> Grammar and design guides, including Web design guides, provide similar guidance.<ref>[[#Fog08|Fogarty 2008]]. p. 85; [[#Shu89|Shushan and Wright 1989]]. p. 34; [[#Wal04|Walsh 2004]]. p. 3.</ref>

Revision as of 20:45, 11 February 2011

Double sentence-spaced typewriter text (1946) vs. single sentence-spaced typeset text (1979)

Sentence spacing is the horizontal space between sentences in typeset text. It is a matter of typographical convention.[1] Since the introduction of movable-type printing in Europe, various sentence spacing conventions have been used in languages with a Latin-derived alphabet.[2] These include a normal word space (as between the words in a sentence), a single enlarged space, and two full spaces. Although modern digital fonts can automatically adjust a single word space to create visually pleasing and consistent spacing following terminal punctuation,[3] most debate is about whether to strike a keyboard's spacebar once or twice between sentences.[4]

Until the 20th century, publishing houses and printers in many countries used single, but enlarged, spaces between sentences.[5] There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method—printers in some countries preferred single spacing.[6] This was French spacing—a term synonymous with single space sentence spacing until the late 20th century.[7] Double spacing,[8] or placing two spaces between sentences (sometimes referred to as English spacing), came into widespread use with the introduction of the typewriter in the late 19th century.[9] It was felt that with the monospaced font used by a typewriter, "a single word space ... was not wide enough to create a sufficient space between sentences"[10] and that extra space might help signal the end of a sentence.[11] This caused a widespread change in practice. From the late 19th century, printers were told to ignore their typesetting manuals in favor of typewriter spacing; Monotype and Linotype operators used double sentence spacing[11] and this was widely taught in typing classes.[12]

After the introduction of proportional fonts in computers, from around 1950, single sentence spacing became standard in books, magazines and newspapers.[13] Regardless, many still believe that double spaces are correct. The debate continues,[4] notably on the World Wide Web—as many people use search engines to try to find what is correct.[14] Many people prefer double sentence spacing for informal use because that was how they were taught to type.[15] There is a debate on which convention is more legible, and the few recent direct studies have produced inconclusive results.[16]

Most modern literature on typography says that double spacing is wrong,[17] but some non-typographical sources indicate that it could be used on a typewriter or with a monospaced font.[18] The majority of style guides opt for a single space after terminal punctuation for final and published work, with a few permitting double spacing in draft manuscripts and for specific circumstances based on personal preference.[19] Grammar and design guides, including Web design guides, provide similar guidance.[20]

History

Main article: History of sentence spacing

Traditional typesetting

Single sentence spaced typeset text with an em-space between sentences (1909)

Early printing systems were limited to inflexible word spacing. Improvements that allowed variable spacing soon appeared.[21] Early American, English, and other European typesetters' style guides (also known as printers' rules) specified spacing standards that were all essentially identical from the 18th century onwards. These guides—e.g., Jacobi in the UK (1890)[22] and MacKellar, Harpel, and De Vinne (1866–1901) in the U.S.[23]—indicated that sentences should be em-spaced, and that words should be 1/3 or 1/2 em-spaced (illustration right). Only a single type block was typically used, which resulted in the appearance of about a double word space between sentences.[24] For most countries, this remained the standard for published work until the 20th century.[25] Yet, even in this period, there were publishing houses (notably in France) that used a standard word space between sentences—a technique called French spacing (illustration below).

Mechanical type and the advent of the typewriter

Mechanical type systems introduced near the end of the 19th century, such as the Linotype and Monotype machines, allowed variable sentence spacing.[26] However, with the advent of the typewriter and its widespread usage beginning in the late 19th century, the average text composer had only two possibilities—to strike the space bar once or twice between sentences. The typewriter's mechanical limitations did not allow variable spacing. This caused a fundamental change in sentence spacing methods. Typists in some English-speaking countries learned to insert two spaces between sentences to approximate the exaggerated sentence spacing used in traditional printing,[27] a practice that continued throughout the 20th century.[9] This became known as English spacing, and marked a divergence from French typists, who continued to use French spacing.[28]

French spaced typeset text (1874)

Transition to single spacing

Professional printers moved from double to single sentence spacing in the 20th century. Magazines, newspapers, and books began to adopt the single space convention in the United States in the 1940s and in the United Kingdom in the 1950s.[29] Typists did not transition to single spacing simultaneously. The average writer still relied on the typewriter to create text—with its inherent mechanical spacing limitations.

Technological advances began affecting sentence spacing methods. In 1941, IBM introduced the Executive, a typewriter capable of proportional spacing[30]—which had been used in professional typesetting for hundreds of years. This innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had on the typewriter—reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations.[31] "By the 1960s, electric phototyping systems" ignored runs of white space in text,[32] a feature that reappeared on the World Wide Web, as HTML ignores additional spacing.[33] Computers offered additional sentence spacing tools for the average writer,[34] and the double spacing convention, "as a standard operating procedure ... went out with the IBM Selectric".[35] By the late 20th century, literature on the written word had begun to adjust its guidance on sentence spacing.

Modern literature

Typography

Early positions on typography (the "arrangement and appearance of text")[36] supported traditional spacing techniques in English publications. In 1954, Geoffrey Dowding's book, Finer Points in the Spacing and Arrangement of Type, underscored the widespread shift from a single enlarged em space to a standard word space between sentences.[37]

With the advent of the computer age, typographers began deprecating double spacing, even in monospaced text. In 1989, Desktop Publishing by Design stated that "typesetting requires only one space after periods, question marks, exclamation points, and colons", and identified single sentence spacing as a typographic convention.[38] Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works (1993) and Designing with Type: The Essential Guide to Typography (2006) both indicate that uniform spacing should be used between words, including between sentences.[39]

More recent works on typography weigh in strongly. Ilene Strizver, founder of the Type Studio, says, "Forget about tolerating differences of opinion: typographically speaking, typing two spaces before the start of a new sentence is absolutely, unequivocally wrong."[15] The Complete Manual on Typography (2003) states that "The typewriter tradition of separating sentences with two word spaces after a period has no place in typesetting" and the single space is "standard typographic practice".[40] The Elements of Typographic Style (2004) advocates a single space between sentences, noting that "your typing as well as your typesetting will benefit from unlearning this quaint [double spacing] Victorian habit."[9]

David Jury's book, About Face: Reviving the Rules of Typography (2004)—published in Switzerland—clarifies the contemporary typographic position on sentence spacing:

Word spaces, preceding or following punctuation, should be optically adjusted to appear to be of the same value as a standard word space. If a standard word space is inserted after a full point or a comma, then, optically, this produces a space of up to 50% wider than that of other word spaces within a line of type. This is because these punctuation marks carry space above them, which, when added to the adjacent standard word spaces, combines to create a visually larger space. Some argue that the "additional" space after a comma and full point serves as a "pause signal" for the reader. But this is unnecessary (and visually disruptive) since the pause signal is provided by the punctuation mark itself.[41]

Style and language guides

Main article: Sentence spacing in language and style guides
Traditional spacing examples from the 1911 Chicago Manual of Style

Style guides

Early style guides for typesetting used a wider space between sentences than between words— "traditional spacing," as shown in the illustration to the right.[42] During the 20th century, style guides commonly mandated two spaces between sentences for typewritten manuscripts, which were used prior to professionally typesetting the work.[43] As computer desktop publishing became commonplace, typewritten manuscripts became less relevant and most style guides stopped making distinctions between manuscripts and final typeset products.[44] In the same period, style guides began changing their guidance on sentence spacing. The 1969 edition of the Chicago Manual of Style used em spaces between sentences in its text;[45] by the 2003 edition it had changed to single sentence spacing for both manuscript and print. By the 1980s, the United Kingdom's Hart's Rules (1983)[46] had shifted to single sentence spacing. Other style guides followed suit in the 1990s.[47] Soon after the beginning of the 21st century, the majority of style guides had changed to indicate that only one word space was proper between sentences.[48]

Modern style guides provide standards and guidance for the written language. These works are important to writers since "virtually all professional editors work closely with one of them in editing a manuscript for publication."[49] Late editions of comprehensive style guides, such as the Oxford Style Manual (2003)[50] in the United Kingdom and the Chicago Manual of Style (2010)[51] in the United States, provide standards for a wide variety of writing and design topics, including sentence spacing.[52] The majority of style guides now prescribe the use of a single space after terminal punctuation in final written works and publications.[53] A few style guides allow double sentence spacing for draft work, and the Gregg Reference Manual makes room for double and single sentence spacing based on author preferences.[54] Web design guides do not usually provide guidance on this topic, as "HTML refuses to recognize double spaces altogether".[55] These works themselves follow the current publication standard of single sentence spacing.[56]

The European Union's Interinstitutional Style Guide (2008) indicates that single sentence spacing is to be used in all European Union publications—encompassing 23 languages.[57] For the English language, the European Commission's English Style Guide (2010) states that sentences are always single-spaced.[58] The Style Manual: For Authors, Editors and Printers (2007), first published in 1966 by the Commonwealth Government Printing Office of Australia, stipulates that only one space is used after "sentence-closing punctuation", and that "Programs for word processing and desktop publishing offer more sophisticated, variable spacing, so this practice of double spacing is now avoided because it can create distracting gaps on a page."[59]

National languages not covered by an authoritative language academy typically have multiple style guides—only some of which may discuss sentence spacing. This is the case in the United Kingdom. The Oxford Style Manual (2003) and the Modern Humanities Research Association's MHRA Style Guide (2002), state that only single spacing should be used.[60] In Canada, both the English and French language sections of the Canadian Style, A Guide to Writing and Editing (1997), prescribe single sentence spacing.[61] In the United States, many style guides—such as the Chicago Manual of Style (2003)—allow only single sentence spacing.[62] The most important style guide in Italy, Il Nuovo Manuale di Stile (2009),[63] does not address sentence spacing, but the Guida di Stile Italiano (2010), the official guide for Microsoft translation, tells users to use single sentence spacing "instead of the double spacing used in the United States".[64]

Language guides

Some languages, such as French and Spanish, have academies that set language rules. Their publications typically address orthography and grammar as opposed to matters of typography. Style guides are less relevant for such languages, as their academies set prescriptive rules. For example, the Académie française publishes the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française for French speakers worldwide.[65] The 1992 edition does not provide guidance on sentence spacing, but is single-sentence-spaced throughout—consistent with historical French spacing. The Spanish language is similar. The most important body within the Association of Spanish Language Academies, the Real Academia Española, publishes the Diccionario de la Lengua Española, which is viewed as prescriptive for the Spanish language worldwide.[66] The 2001 edition does not provide sentence spacing guidance, but is itself single sentence spaced. The German language manual Empfehlungen des Rats für Deutsche Rechtschreibung ("Recommendations of the Council for German Orthography") (2006) does not address sentence spacing.[67] The manual itself uses one space after terminal punctuation. Additionally, the Duden, the German language dictionary most commonly used in Germany,[68] indicates that double sentence spacing is an error.[69]

Grammar guides

A few reference grammars address sentence spacing, as increased spacing between words is punctuation in itself.[70] Most do not. Grammar guides typically cover terminal punctuation and the proper construction of sentences—but not the spacing between sentences.[71] Moreover, many modern grammar guides are designed for quick reference[72] and refer users to comprehensive style guides for additional matters of writing style.[73] For example, the Pocket Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Punctuation (2005) points users to style guides such as the MLA Style Manual for consistency in formatting work and for all other "editorial concerns".[74] The Grammar Bible (2004) states that "The modern system of English punctuation is by no means simple. A book that covers all the bases would need to be of considerable breadth and weight and anyone interested in such a resource is advised to consult the Chicago Manual of Style."[75]

Digital age

Main article: Sentence spacing in digital media

Mignon Fogarty, "Grammar Girl", points out that in the past, typewriting used two spaces—in deference to its monospaced font limitations—but "Now that most writing is done on computers it is no longer necessary to type two spaces after a period at the end of a sentence."[52] She answers the question of "How many spaces?" as follows: "On a typewriter, use two. On a computer, use one."[76] This position highlights the late 20th-century transition from the typewriter to the computer, and its effect on sentence spacing.

Today, computers and digital fonts allow sentence spacing variations not possible with the typewriter. Proportional fonts are widely available to average computer users. Computer-based tools such as proportional fonts, kerning, computer-based word processors, and software such as TeX allow users to arrange text in a manner previously only available to professional typesetters.[77] These tools are also available on the World Wide Web, even though single spacing is the convention because of the characteristics of HTML.[55] Yet, even in the digital age, many school students are still taught to strike the space bar twice between sentences when using computers, contributing to 21st-century sentence spacing misconceptions[neutrality is disputed]..[15]

Controversy

James Felici, author of the Complete Manual of Typography, says that the topic of sentence spacing is "the debate that refuses to die ... In all my years of writing about type, it's still the question I hear most often, and a search of the web will find threads galore on the subject".[4] This subject is still widely debated today because many typists were taught to use double sentence spacing in school.[78] As a result, there is a common misconception [neutrality is disputed] that double sentence spacing is "correct", even given modern technology and proportional fonts.[14] This is similar to other obsolete typewriter conventions, practiced in deference to its "severe technical limitations", that are still used by writers. These include the use of prime marks (or "dumb quotes") for quotation marks, underlining words in place of italics, and using hyphens to approximate en and em dashes.[79]

Many people are opposed to single sentence spacing for various reasons. Some state that the habit of double spacing is too deeply ingrained to change.[18] Others claim that additional space between sentences makes text "look better" or easier to read.[80] Proponents of double sentence spacing also state that some publishers may still require double spaced manuscript submissions from authors. A key example noted is the screenwriting industry's monospaced "standard" for screenplay manuscripts, Courier, 12-point font,[81] although some works on screenwriting indicate that Courier is merely "preferred," and that proportional fonts may be used.[82] Some reliable sources state simply that writers should follow their particular style guide, but proponents of double spacing caution that publisher's guidance takes precedence, including those that ask for double sentence spaced manuscripts.[83]

In opposition to these ideas, many experts state that double sentence spacing was only relevant when faced with the limitations of the typewriter, and is now obsolete for most uses, especially given the capabilities of modern computers and digital fonts.[84] While typewriter users had only two choices (to strike the space bar once or twice), modern proportional fonts allow compositors to manually adjust sentence spacing to thousandths of an inch for visually pleasing typesetting.[85] Some sources state it is also acceptable even for monospaced fonts to be single spaced today,[86] although other references specify double spacing for monospaced fonts.[87] Another opinion is that as terminal punctuation marks the end of a sentence, and additional spacing is itself punctuation,[9] additional spacing is redundant.

The double space typewriter convention is still being taught widely in school,[15] and there is concern that the students will later be forced to relearn how to type.[88] Most style guides indicate that single sentence spacing is proper for final or published work today,[89] and "most publishers" require manuscripts to be submitted as they will appear in publication—single sentence spaced.[90] Writing sources typically recommend that prospective authors remove extra spaces before submitting manuscripts;[91] although other sources state that publishers will use software to remove the spaces before final publication.[92] Finally, some experts state that, while double spacing sentences in unpublished papers and informal use (such as e-mail) might be fine,[93] double sentence spacing in desktop-published ("DTP") works will make the final result look "unprofessional" and "foolish".[94]

Effects on readability and legibility

Claims abound regarding the legibility and readability of the single and double sentence spacing methods—by proponents on both sides. Supporters of single spacing assert that familiarity with the current standard in books, magazines, and the Web enhances readability, that double spacing looks strange in text using proportional fonts, and that the "rivers" and "holes" caused by double spacing impair readability.[95] Proponents of double sentence spacing state that the extra space between sentences enhances readability by providing breaks between sentences and makes text appear more legible.[96]

However, typographic opinions are typically anecdotal with no basis in evidence.[97] "Opinions are not always safe guides to legibility of print",[98] and when direct studies are conducted, anecdotal opinions—even those of experts—can turn out to be false. [99] Text that seems legible (visually pleasing at first glance), may be shown to actually impair reading effectiveness when subjected to scientific study.[100]

Studies

Few studies have been conducted on sentence spacing. Direct studies include those by Loh, Branch, Shewanown, and Ali (2002), Clinton, Branch, Holschuh, and Shewanown (2003) and Ni, Branch and Chen (2004) with inconclusive results favoring single or double spacing.[101] The 2002 study tested participants' reading speed for single and double sentence spaced passages of on-screen text. The authors stated that "the 'double space group' consistently took longer time to finish than the 'single space' group", but concluded that "there was not enough evidence to suggest that a significant difference exists".[102] The 2003 and 2004 studies analyzed on-screen single, double, and triple spacing. In both cases, the authors stated that there was insufficient evidence to draw a conclusion.[103] Ni, Branch, Chen, and Clinton conducted a similar study in 2009 using identical spacing variables. The authors concluded that the "results provided insufficient evidence that time and comprehension differ significantly among different conditions of spacing between sentences".[104]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ University of Chicago Press 2003, Chicago Manual of Style. p. 243; Einsohn 2006. p. 113; Shushan and Wright 1989. p. 34.
  2. ^ Languages with Sanscrit, Cyrillic, cuneiform, hieroglyphics, Chinese, and Japanese characters, among others, are not covered in the scope of this article. Handwriting is also not covered.
  3. ^ Felici 2003. p. 80; Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Straus 2009. p. 52.
  4. ^ a b c Felici 2009.
  5. ^ MacKellar 1885. p. 78; University of Chicago Press 1911 Chicago Manual of Style. p. 101.
  6. ^ Felici 2009
  7. ^ In the 1990s, some print and Web sources began referring to double sentence spacing as "French spacing", leading to some ambiguity with the term. See for example, Eckersley et al. 1994. p. 46, and Haley 2006.
  8. ^ Felici 2003. p. 80; Bringhurst 2004. p. 28; Walsh 2004. p. 3; Williams 2003. 13.
  9. ^ a b c d Bringhurst 2004. p. 28.
  10. ^ Felici 2003. p. 80.
  11. ^ a b Jury 2009. p. 58.
  12. ^ Bringhurst 2004. p. 28; Williams 2003. pp. 13–14; Strizver 2010.
  13. ^ Williams 2003. pp. 13–14. This refers to professionally published works, as it is possible for individual authors to publish works through desktop publishing systems. Williams states, "I guarantee this: never in your life have you read professionally set text printed since 1942 that used two spaces after each period." See also, Felici 2003. p. 81; Strizver 2010; Weiderkehr 2009; Williams 1995. p. 4.
  14. ^ a b Rosendorf 2010.
  15. ^ a b c d Strizver 2010.
  16. ^ Lloyd and Hallahan 2009. "During times when many disciplines that recommend the APA's Publication Manual [6th ed., 2009] are advocating evidence-based decisions, it's noteworthy, we think, that these discussions of the rationale for using two spaces at the end of sentences (and after colons) do not appear to be based on scientific examination of the hypothesis that two spaces makes manuscripts more readable."
  17. ^ Bringhurst 2004. p. 28; Felici 2003. p. 80; Strizver 2010; Spiekermann and Ginger 1993. p. 123; Dowding 1995. 29.
  18. ^ a b Williams 2003. p. 13.
  19. ^ Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Leonard, et al. 2009. A number of style and language guides provide direction on this topic. Examples of style guides that recommend single sentence spacing include: the Chicago Manual of Style 16th Edition (2010), the Oxford Style Manual (2003), Kate Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations 7th Edition (2007), the American Psychological Association's (APA's) Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association 6th Edition (2010, Second Printing), and the Modern Language Association's MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing 3rd Edition (2008). For further information, see Sentence spacing in language and style guides.
  20. ^ Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Shushan and Wright 1989. p. 34; Walsh 2004. p. 3.
  21. ^ DeVinne 1901. p. 142.
  22. ^ Jacobi 1890.
  23. ^ MacKellar 1885; Harpel 1870. p. 19; DeVinne 1901. p. 78.
  24. ^ Chicago University Press 1911. p. 101. Variable-spaced text (professionally typeset) is unlikely to result in a sentence space exactly twice the size of a word space (which can be seen with a typewriter or monospaced font). Variables such as whether a 1/3 or 1/2 word space is used, and whether the text is justified or unjustified, will vary the difference between a sentence space and word space.
  25. ^ Felici 2009. Felici illustrates that there are other examples of standard single word spaces used for sentence spacing in this period.
  26. ^ Dodd 2006. p. 73; Mergenthaler Linotype 1940.
  27. ^ Jury 2009. 58. This primarily refers to the United States and Great Britain.
  28. ^ Imprimerie nationale 1993.
  29. ^ Felici 2009; University of Chicago Press 2009; Williams 2003. p. 14.
  30. ^ Wershler-Henry 2005. p. 254.
  31. ^ Wershler-Henry 2005. pp. 254–255.
  32. ^ Felici 2009.
  33. ^ Lupton 2004. p. 165. HTML normally ignores all additional horizontal spacing between text.
  34. ^ Jury 2009. p. 57.
  35. ^ Walsh 2004. p. 3.
  36. ^ American Medical Association 2007. p. 917.
  37. ^ Dowding 1995.
  38. ^ Shushan and Wright 1989. p. 34.
  39. ^ Craig 2006. p. 90; Spiekermann and Ginger 1993, p. 123.
  40. ^ Felici 2003. pp. 80–81.
  41. ^ Jury 2004. p. 92.
  42. ^ De Vinne 1901; University of Chicago Press 1911; Hart 1893.
  43. ^ Garner, Newman and Jackson 2006; "So I ask you (authors): space twice after every period," Nina K. Hoffman, "Typesetters Blues," in Rusch and Smith 1990, p. 113.
  44. ^ For example, the 15th Edition of the Chicago Manual of Style states that "A single character space, not two spaces, should be left after periods at the ends of sentences (both in manuscript and in final, published form) and after colons. University of Chicago Press 2003 Chicago Manual of Style. p. 61.
  45. ^ University of Chicago Press 1969 Manual of Style (commonly referred to as "Chicago Manual of Style," (1st edition published in 1906.) The 1969 edition of the Manual of Style shows em spacing after sentences in the manuscript example (page 41), but single spacing in the typset example (p. 73).
  46. ^ Hart 1983
  47. ^ American Sociological Association.
  48. ^ Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Leonard, et al. 2009.
  49. ^ Lutz and Stevenson 2005. p. viii.
  50. ^ Ritter 2003. The 2003 edition of the Oxford Style Manual combined the Oxford Guide to Style (first published as Horace Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford in 1893) and the Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors (first published as the Authors' and Printers' Dictionary in 1905) Preface.
  51. ^ University of Chicago Press Chicago Manual of Style 2010.
  52. ^ a b Fogarty 2008. p. 85.
  53. ^ Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Leonard, et al. 2009.
  54. ^ Sabin 2005. pp. 5-6.
  55. ^ a b Lupton 2004. p. 165.
  56. ^ Strunk and White 1999. (1st edition published in 1918.); Council of Science Editors 2006. (1st edition published in 1960.); American Medical Association 2007. (1st edition published in 1962.)
  57. ^ Publications Office of the European Union 2008. (1st edition published in 1997.) This manual is "obligatory" for all those in the EU who are involved in preparing EU documents and works [1]. It is intended to encompass 23 languages within the European Union [2].
  58. ^ European Commission Directorate-General for Translation. p. 22. (1st edition published in 1982.) "Note in particular that ... stops (. ? ! : ;) are always followed by only a single (not a double) space."
  59. ^ John Wiley & Sons Australia 2007. p. 153. The Commonwealth is an organization of 54 English-speaking states worldwide.
  60. ^ Ritter 2003 Oxford Style Manual, 2003. p. 51. (First published as the MHRA Style Book in 1971.) "In text, use only a single word space after all sentence punctuation."; Modern Humanities Research Association 2002. p. 6.
  61. ^ Dundurn Press 1997. p. 113. (1st edition published in 1987.); Public Works and Government Services of Canada 2010. p. 293. "17.07 French Typographical Rules—Punctuation: Adopt the following rules for spacing with punctuation marks. [table] Mark: Period, before: none, after: 1 space."
  62. ^ University of Chicago Press 2003 Chicago Manual of Style. p. 61. "2.12 A single character space, not two spaces, should be left after periods at the ends of sentences (both in manuscript and in final, published form)." p. 243. "6.11 In typeset matter, one space, not two (in other words, a regular word space), follows any mark of punctuation that ends a sentence, whether a period, a colon, a question mark, an exclamation point, or closing quotation marks." p. 243. "6.13 A period marks the end of a declarative or an imperative sentence. It is followed by a single space."
  63. ^ Lesina 2009. (1st edition published in 1986.) "Prefazione: Il manuala intende fornire una serie di indicazioni utili per la stesura di testi di carattere non inventive, quali per esempio manuali, saggi, monografie, relazioni professionali, tesi di laurea, articoli per riviste, ecc." (Trans: "[S]tyle manual for academic papers, monographs, professional correspondence, theses, articles, etc.) Preface; Carrada 2010. "Roberto Lesina, Il nuovo manuale di stile, Zanichelli 2009. L'unico vero manuale di stile italiano, di cui nessun redattore può fare a meno". (Trans: "The only real Italian style guide, a must-have for any writer".) The 2009 edition is itself single sentence spaced.
  64. ^ Microsoft 2010. p. 4.1.8. "Assicurarsi ad esempio che tra la fine e l'inizio di due periodi separati da un punto venga usato un unico spazio prima della frase successiva, invece dei due spazi del testo americano ... A differenza di altre lingue, non va inserito nessuno spazio prima dei segni di punteggiatura." (Trans."Make sure that between two sentences separated by a period a single space is used before the second sentence, instead of the double spacing used in the United States ... Contrary to other languages, no space is to be added before punctuation marks.")
  65. ^ Académie française 1992. French is spoken in 57 countries and territories throughout the world, including Europe, North America, and Francophone Africa. Qu'est-ce que la Francophonie?
  66. ^ Real Academia Española 2001. p. 2.
  67. ^ Council for German Orthography 2010.
  68. ^ Bibliographisches Institut AG 2010.
  69. ^ Bibliographisches Institut AG 2010. The Duden was the primary orthography and language guide in Germany until the German orthography reform of 1996 created a multinational council for German orthography for German-speaking countries—composed of experts from Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Switzerland. The current version of the Duden reflects the most recent opinions of this council.
  70. ^ Bringhurst 2004. p. 30. Bringhurst implies that additional spacing after terminal punctuation is redundant when combined with a period, question mark, or exclamation point. Other sources indicate that the function of terminal punctuation is to mark the end of a sentence and additional measures to perform the same measures are unnecessary.
  71. ^ Baugh 2005. p. 200; Cutts 2009. p. 79; Garner 2009. p. 935; Lester 2005; Loberger 2009. p. 158; Stevenson 2005. p. 123; Straus 2009. p. 52; Strumpf. p. 408; Taggart 2009.
  72. ^ Baugh 2005. p. 200; Hopper 2004; Stevenson 2005. p. 123.
  73. ^ Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Loberger 2009. p. 158.
  74. ^ Stevenson 2005. pp. xvi, 123.
  75. ^ Strumpf 2004. p. 408.
  76. ^ Fogarty 2009. p. 78. Other grammar guides recommend one space for computer users. Some indicate that monospaced text could be double spaced in view of the typewriter tradition. See Lutz and Stevenson 2005. pp. 200–202. The Writing Digest Grammar Desk Reference (2005) indicates that "On typed pages, two blank spaces traditionally follow a sentence-ending period", but that "Many editors ... now prefer only a single space" after terminal punctuation. The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation (2009) echoes this opinion in that computer users should "use only one space", and with "some typewriters and word processors, [users should] follow ending punctuation with two spaces when using fixed-pitch fonts". See also Straus 2009. p. 52.
  77. ^ Felici 2003. 80; Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Fogarty 2009. p. 78; Fondiller and Nerone 2007. 93; Garner, Newman and Jackson 2006. 83; Modern Language Association 2009 77; Straus 2009. p. 52.
  78. ^ Bringhurst 2004. p. 28; Smith 2009; Strizver 2010; Williams 2003. p. 13.
  79. ^ Jury 2009. p. 56; Lupton 2004. pp. 164–166; Rosendorf 2009. p. 42; Strizver 2010. pp. 197–201; Williams 2003. pp. 15–16, 21–24, 31–32.
  80. ^ Williams 95. p. 1; Sabin 2005. pp. 5–6.
  81. ^ Trotter 1998. p. 112. Trottier refers to Courier as the industry "standard".
  82. ^ Russin and Downs 2003. p. 17. The authors state that "Courier 12-point is preferred, although New York, Bookman, and Times will do". Moira Anderson Allen suggests that publishers are more interested in readable fonts as opposed to maintaining a monospaced font standard.Allen 2001.
  83. ^ Loberger 2009. p. 158; Stevenson 2005. p. 123; Sambuchino 2009. p. 10.
  84. ^ Bringhurst 2004. p. 28; Felici 2003. p. 80; Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Jury 2009. p. 56; Shushan and Wright 1989. p. 34; Smith 2009; Straus 2009. p. 52; Strizver 2010; Walsh 2004. p. 3; Williams 2003. p. 13.
  85. ^ Felici 2003. p. 80; Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Straus 2009. p. 52.
  86. ^ Sabin 2005, p. 5
  87. ^ Garner, Newman, and Jackson 2006. "Continue the custom (of double spacing) only if you use a typewriter or the Courier font."
  88. ^ Lloyd and Hallahan 2009.
  89. ^ Fogarty 2008. p. 85; Leonard, et al. 2009.
  90. ^ University of Chicago Press 2010. p. 60; Lutz 2005. p. 200; Modern Language Association 2009. pp. 77–78.
  91. ^ Modern Humanities Research Association 2002. p. 6; Sabin 2005. p. 5; Felici 2003. p. 81; Fogarty also stated in Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing that numerous page designers have contacted her stating that two spaces between sentences require them to edit the pages to remove the extra spaces Fogarty 2008. p. 85.
  92. ^ University of Chicago Press 2010. p. 83; The 16th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style instructs editors to remove extra spaces between sentences when preparing a manuscript for publication; also Weiderkehr 2009.
  93. ^ University of Chicago Press Chicago Manual of Style Online 2007; Williams 2003. p. 13.
  94. ^ Williams 1995; Williams 2003. p. 13.
  95. ^ Williams 2003. 13; Smith 2009.
  96. ^ Jury 2004. 92; Williams 1995.
  97. ^ Wheildon 1995. p. 13.
  98. ^ Tinker 1963. p. 50.
  99. ^ Tinker 1963. pp. 88, 108, 127, 128, 153; Wheildon 1995. pp. 8, 35.
  100. ^ Tinker 1963. pp. 50, 108, 128. A useful example is the Helvetica font, an ubiquitous font that is considered extremely legible (visually pleasing in the construction and viewing of its characters), but has been found to impair reading effectiveness (readability). See Squire 2006. p. 36.
  101. ^ Leonard, et al. 2009.
  102. ^ Loh et al., 2002. p. 4.
  103. ^ Clinton 2003. The study did not find "statistically significant differences, between reading time of single and double spaces passages".
  104. ^ Ni et al. 2009. pp. 383, 387, 390. This study "explored the effects of spacing after the period on on-screen reading tasks through two dependent variables, reading time and reading comprehension".

References

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Campbell, A.J.; Marchetti, F.M.; Mewhort, D.J.K. (1981). "Reading Speed and Text Production: A Note on Right-Justification Techniques". Ergonomics. 24 (8). Taylor & Francis: 633–640. doi:10.1080/00140138108924885.
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Clinton, Gregory; Branch, Robert Maribe; Holschuh, D.; Shewanown, S. (2003). "Online Reading Performance Time as a Function of Text Layout: Roundtable Paper Presented at the 2003 AECT Leadership & Technology International Convention, Anaheim, Ca". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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De Vinne, Theodore Low (1901). The Practice of Typography: Correct Composition: A Treatise on Spelling Abbreviations, the Compounding and Division of Words, the Proper Use of Figures and Numerals, Italic and Capital Letters, Notes, Etc., With Observations on Punctuation and Proof-Reading (Second ed.). New York: Century Company.
Dodd, Robin (2006). From Gutenberg to Open Type: An Illustrated History of Type from the Earliest Letterforms to the Latest Digital Fonts. Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0881792101. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=192 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Dowding, Geoffrey (1995). Finer Points in the Spacing & Arrangement of Type (Revised ed.). Vancouver, BC: Hartley & Marks Publishers. ISBN 0881791199. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=90 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Dundurn Press in Co-operation with Public Works and the Government Services Canada Translation Bureau (1997). The Canadian Style: A Guide to Writing and Editing. Toronto and Oxford: J. Kirk Howard. ISBN 1550022768. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=312 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Eckersley, Richard; Ellertson, Charles M.; Angstaldt, Richard; Hendel, Richard (1994). Glossary of Typesetting Terms. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226183718.
Economist (2005). The Economist Style Guide. London: Profile Books. ISBN 1861979169. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=256 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
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European Commission Directorate-General for Translation (April 2010). "English Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors and Translators in the European Commission" (PDF). European Commission. Retrieved 12 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
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Flinn, Denny Martin (1999). How Not to Write a Screenplay: 101 Common Mistakes Most Screenwriters Make. New York: Crown Publishing. ISBN 1580650155. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=240 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Fogarty, Mignon (2008). Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing. New York: Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 9780805088311. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=240 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Fogarty, Mignon (2009). The Grammar Devotional: Daily Tips for Successful Writing from Grammar Girl. New York: Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 9780805091656.
Fondiller, Shirley; Nerone, Barbara J. (2007). Health Professionals Style Manual. New York: Springer Publishing. ISBN 0826102077. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=152 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Free Software Foundation (12 April 2010). "5.2 Commenting Your Work". GNU Coding Standards. Free Software Foundation. Retrieved 17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
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Garner, Bryan A. (2006). The Redbook: A Manual on Legal Style (2nd ed.). Thompson West. ISBN 9780314168917. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=1008 (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Haber, Ralph Norman; Haber, Lyn R. (1981). "Visual Components of the Reading Process". Visible Language. 15 (2). Visible Language: 147–182.
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Hart, Horace (1983). "Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford" (Thirty-ninth ed.). Oxford Editorial. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
Harpel, Oscar (1870). Harpel's Typograph, or Book of Specimens Containing Useful Information, Suggestions and a Collection of Examples of Letterpress Job Printing Arranged for the Assistance of Master Printers, Amateurs, Apprentices, and Others. Cincinnati Press.
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LeClercq, Terri (2007). Guide to Legal Writing Style (Fourth ed.). New York: Aspen Publishers. ISBN 9780735568372. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=144 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
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Lesina, Roberto (2009). Il Nuovo Manuale di Stile: Guida alla Redazione di Documenti, Relazioni, Articoli, Manuali, Tesi di Laurea (PDF) (in Italian) (2.0 ed.). Zanichelli. Retrieved 15 May 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Lester, Mark; Beason, Larry (2005). The McGraw Hill Handbook of English Grammar and Usage. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780071441339. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=304 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Lloyd, John Wills; Hallahan, Dan (10 November 2009). "Where's the Evidence to Justify Two Spaces?". Spacewaste. Wordpress.com. Retrieved 4 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
Loberger, Gordon; Shoup, Kate (2009). Webster's New World English Grammar Handbook (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 9780470410806. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=408 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Loh, Christian Sebastian, Robert Maribe Branch, Saun Shewanown, and Radwan Ali. "The Effect of Text Spacing After the Period on Time for On-Screen Reading Tasks". IVLA Book of Selected Readings: Selected Readings of the IVLA Annual Conference. IVLA. 2002. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Lupton, Ellen (2004). Thinking with Type. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 9781568984483. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=176 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Lutz, Gary; Stevenson, Diane (2005). The Writing Digest Grammar Desk Reference. Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books. ISBN 9781582973357.
Lynch, Patrick J.; Horton, Sarah (2008). Web Style Guide. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300137378. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=352 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
MacKellar, Thomas (1885). The American Printer: A Manual of Typography, Containing Practical Directions for Managing all Departments of a Printing Office, As Well as Complete Instructions for Apprentices: With Several Useful Tables, Numerous Schemes for Imposing Forms in Every Variety, Hints to Authors, Etc (Fifteenth – Revised and Enlarged ed.). Philadelphia: MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=390 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Mergenthaler Linotype Company (1940). Linotype Keyboard Operation: Methods of Study and Procedures for Setting Various Kinds of Composition on the Linotype. Mergenthaler Linotype Company. ISBN B000J0N06M. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Invalid |nopp=180 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Microsoft (2010). "Italian Style Guide: Microsoft Language Excellence". Microsoft Language Portal – Style Guide Download (in Italian) (1.0 ed.). Microsoft. Retrieved 11 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Microsoft. "Character design standards (5 of 10): Space Characters for Latin 1". Microsoft Typography. Microsoft. Retrieved 16 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Modern Humanities Research Association (2002). MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses. Leeds, UK: Maney Publishing. ISBN 0947623620. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=92 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Modern Language Association (15 January 2009). "How many spaces should I leave after a period or other concluding mark of punctuation?". Modern Language Association. Retrieved 31 January 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
Modern Language Association (2009). MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (7th ed.). Modern Language Association of America. ISBN 9781603290241. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
Ni, Xiaopeng; Branch, Robert Maribe; Chen, Kuan-Chung; Clinton, Gregory (2009). Sleeman, Phillip J (ed.). "The Effects of Text Spacing on Screen Reading Time and Comprehension". International Journal of Instructional Media. 36 (4).
North, A. J.; Jenkins, L. B. (1951). "Reading Speed and Comprehension as a Function of Typography". Journal of Applied Psychology. 35. PMID 14861125.
Oxford University Press (1983). "Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford" (Thirty-ninth ed.). Oxford Editorial. Retrieved 24 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Payne, Donald R. (1967). "Readability of Typewritten Material; Proportional Versus Standard Spacing". The Journal of Typographic Research. 1 (2): 125–136.
Public Works and Government Services of Canada (2010). "The Canadian Style Online". Public Works and Government Services of Canada, The Translation Bureau, The Government of Canada's terminology and linguistic data bank TERMIUM-Plus. Retrieved 26 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Publications Office of the European Union (24 July 2008). "Interinstitutional Style Guide". Europa. European Union. Retrieved 12 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
Real Academia Española (2001). "Diccionario de la Lengua Española de la Real Academia Española". Real Academia Española. Retrieved 20 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Rhodes, John S. (13 April 1999). "One Versus Two Spaces After a Period". Webword.com. Retrieved 21 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
Ritter, R. M., ed. (2003). Oxford Style Manual. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198605641. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=1033 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Rollo, Lindsay (Number Two. 1993). "Words and Images in Print and on Screen" (PDF). SET: Research Information for Teachers. Retrieved 10 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
Rosendorf, Theodore (2009). The Typographic Desk Reference (1st ed.). New Castle, Delaware. ISBN 9781584562313. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=152 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Rosendorf, Theodore (2010). "The Double Space Debate". Type Desk. Retrieved 23 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Rusch, Kristine Kathryn; Smith, Dean Wesley (1990). Science Fiction Writers of America Handbook (1990 ed.). Writers Notebook Press.
Russin, Robin U.; Downs, William M. (2003). Screenplay, Writing the Picture. Silman-James Press. ISBN 9781879505704. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=483 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Ryder, John (1979). The Case for Legibility. London: Bodley Head. ISBN 0370301587.
Sabin, William (1985). The Gregg Reference Manual (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070543992.
Sabin, William (2005). The Gregg Reference Manual (10th Spiral-bound ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780072936537. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=688 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Sambuchino, Chuck; The Editors of Writer's Digest Books (2009). Formatting and Submitting your Manuscript (3rd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books. ISBN 9781582975719. {{cite book}}: |last2= has generic name (help); Invalid |nopp=324 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Scales, Alice Y. (2002). "Improving Instructional Materials by Improving Document Formatting" (PDF). ASEE Southeast Section Conference. Retrieved 10 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Schriver, Karen A. (1997). Dynamics in Document Design. New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore, Weinheim: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471306363. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=592 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Sheerin, Peter K. (19 October 2001). "The Trouble With EM 'n EN (and Other Shady Characters)". A List Apart. A List Apart Magazine. Retrieved 17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
Shushan, Ronnie; Wright, Don (1989). Desktop Publishing by Design. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press. ISBN 1556151349.
Smith, Laurie (8 July 2009). "Don't Date Yourself by Using Two Spaces after a Period in Your Resume!". Executive Resumes and Career Transition Strategies: Reflections of an Executive Resume Writer. Creative Keystrokes™ Executive Resume Service. Retrieved 30 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
Spiekermann, Erik; Ginger, E.M. (1993). Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works. Mountain View, CA: Adobe Press. ISBN 0672485435.
Squire, Victoria; Willberg, Hans Peter; Forsmann, Friedrich (2006). Getting it Right with Type. London: Laurence King Publishing. ISBN 9781856694742. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=176 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Stevenson, Jay (2005). The Pocket Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Punctuation: A Handy Reference to Resolve All Your Grammatical Problems. Alpha Books. ISBN 9781592573936. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=208 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Straus, Jane (2009). The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes (10th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 9780470222683. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=176 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Strizver, Ilene. "Double Spaces Between Sentences ... Not!". U&lc: Upper and Lowercase Magazine Online: Issue 41.1.1. International Typeface Organization and Monotype Imaging. Retrieved 31 March 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Strizver, Ilene (2010). Type Rules: The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography (3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470542512. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
Strumpf, Michael; Douglas, Auriel (2004). The Grammar Bible. New York: Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 9780805075601. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=512 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Strunk, William; White, E.B. (2008). The Elements of Style (50th Anniversary ed.). Longman. ISBN 9780205632640. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=128 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Style Manual Committee Council of Science Editors (2006). Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (Seventh ed.). Reston, VA: The Council. ISBN 097796650X. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help); Invalid |nopp=658 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Taggart, Caroline (2009). My Grammar and I: Or Should that be "Me"?. London: JA Wines. ISBN 9781606520260.
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Tinker, Miles A. (1966). "Experimental Studies on the Legibility of Print: An Annotated Bibliography". Reading Research Quarterly. 1 (4). International Reading Association: 67–118. Retrieved 2 April 2010. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
Trottier, David (2005). The Screenwriter's Bible: A Complete Guide to Writing, Formatting, and Selling Your Script (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Silman James Press. ISBN 1879505843.
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Unicode (2009). "Unicode Standard Annex #14: Unicode Line Breaking Algorithm". Unicode Technical Reports. Unicode. Retrieved 17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
United States. (23 April 2009). "U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual". Retrieved 4 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
United States Navy. "U.S. Navy Style Guide "Punctuation"". Retrieved 17 January 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
University of Chicago Press (1911). Manual of Style: A Compilation of Typographical Rules Governing the Publications of the University of Chicago, with Specimens of Types Used at the University Press (Third ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago. ISBN 1145264468.
University of Chicago Press (1969). The Chicago Manual of Style: For Authors, Editors, and Copywriters (12th Revised ed.). Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226770087. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |comment= ignored (help)
University of Chicago Press (2003). The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers (15th ed.). Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226104036.
University of Chicago Press (2007). "One Space or Two?". Chicago Manual of Style Online. University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 8 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Invalid |nopp=984 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
University of Chicago Press (2010). The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers (16th ed.). Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226104201.
Walsh, Bill (2004). The Elephants of Style: A Trunkload of Tips on the Big Issues and Gray Areas of Contemporary American English. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780071422680. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=238 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
W3C (24 December 1999). "9.1 White Space". HTML 4.01 Coding Specification. W3C. Retrieved 17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
W3C (24 December 1999). "24.4 Character Entity References for Markup-Significant and Internationalization characters". HTML 4.01 Coding Specification. W3C. Retrieved 17 May 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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Wershler-Henry, Darren (2005). The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting. Ithica and London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801445866.
Wheildon, Colin (1995). Type and Layout: How Typography and Design Can Get your Message Across – Or Get in the Way. Berkeley: Strathmoor Press. ISBN 0962489158. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=248 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Wiley, John, & Sons Australia (2007). Style Manual: For Authors, Editors and Printers (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons Australia. ISBN 9780701636487.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Williams, Robin (1995). The PC is Not a Typewriter (1st ed.). Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press. ISBN 9780938151494. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=96 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
Williams, Robin (1995). "Thirteen Telltale Signs" (PDF). Adobe Magazine. Adobe. Retrieved 10 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
Williams, Robin (2003). The Mac is Not a Typewriter: A Style Manual for Creating Professional-level Type on Your Macintosh (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press. ISBN 0201782634. {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=96 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)

Further reading

External links

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