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{{Infobox Philosopher
{{Infobox philosopher
|region = Western Philosophy
|region = Western Philosophy
|era = [[20th century philosophy]]
|era = [[20th century philosophy]]
|color = lightsteelblue
|image_name = George Santayana.jpg
|image_name = George Santayana.jpg
|image_alt = A line drawing of the face and upper torso of George Santayana as a middle-aged man. He is balding, wearing a suit, and looking away from the viewer to the right.
|image_caption = George Santayana
|image_caption = A drawing of George Santayana from the early 20th century
|name = Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás
|name = Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás
|other_name = George Santayana
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1863|12|16}}
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1863|12|16}}
|birth_place = [[Madrid, Spain]]
|birth_place = [[Madrid]], [[Community of Madrid]], [[Spain]]
|nationality = [[Spaniard]]
|nationality = [[Spanish people|Spaniard]]-[[American people|American]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1952|9|26|1863|12|16}}
|death_date = {{death date and age|1952|9|26|1863|12|16}}
|death_place = [[Rome]], [[Lazio]], [[Italy]]
|alma_mater = [[Harvard University]]<br/>[[King's College, Cambridge]]
|alma_mater = [[Harvard University]]<br/>[[King's College, Cambridge]]
|school_tradition = [[Pragmatism]], [[Naturalism (philosophy)|Naturalism]]
|school_tradition = [[Pragmatism]], [[Naturalism (philosophy)|Naturalism]]
|main interests = [[moral philosophy]], [[political philosophy]], [[epistemology]], [[metaphysics]]
|main interests = [[moral philosophy]], [[political philosophy]], [[epistemology]], [[metaphysics]], [[philosophy of religion]]
|notable_ideas = [[Lucretius|Lucretian]] [[materialism]], [[Skepticism]], [[natural]] [[aristocracy]], [[The Realms of Being|Realms of Being]]
|notable_ideas = [[Lucretius|Lucretian]] [[materialism]], [[skepticism]], natural [[aristocracy]], [[The Realms of Being]]
|influences = [[Democritus]], [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Lucretius]], [[Spinoza]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Hippolyte Taine]], [[Ernest Renan]], [[William James|James]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]]
|influences = [[Democritus]], [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Lucretius]], [[Baruch Spinoza]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], [[Hippolyte Taine]], [[Ernest Renan]], [[William James]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]
|influenced = [[Naturalism (philosophy)|Naturalism]], [[William James]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Wallace Stevens]], [[John Lachs]] |
|influenced = [[Naturalism (philosophy)|Naturalism]], [[William James]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Wallace Stevens]], [[John Lachs]]
|signature =
|signature_alt =
}}
}}
'''George Santayana''' (born Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás in [[Madrid]], December 16, 1863; died September 26, 1952, in [[Rome]]) was a [[Spanish American]] philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. A lifelong Spanish citizen, Santayana was raised and educated in the United States, wrote in English and is generally considered an American [[man of letters]]. Santayana is perhaps best known today for his remark that "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it",<ref>George Santayana (1905) ''Reason in Common Sense'', volume&nbsp;1 of ''[[The Life of Reason]]''</ref> and the line "only the dead have seen the end of war"<ref>George Santayana (1922) ''Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies'', number 25</ref>—the latter often falsely attributed to [[Plato]]. The philosophical system of Santayana is broadly considered [[Pragmatism|Pragmatist]] due to having similar concerns as his fellow [[Harvard University]] associates [[William James]] and [[Josiah Royce]], but he did not accept this label for his writing and eschewed any association with a [[philosophical school]]; he declared that he stood in philosophy "exactly where [he stood] in daily life."<ref name="stood">{{Citation |last=Santayana |first=George |editorn-last=Coleman |editorn-first=Martin A. |title=The Essential Santayana: Selected Writings |format=Paperback |edition=1st |date=March 5, 2009 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=[[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]], [[Indiana]], [[United States]] |isbn=0253221056 |page=xxv}}</ref>


==Biography==
'''George Santayana''' (December 16, 1863 September 26, 1952) was a [[Spanish people|Spanish]] philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. A lifelong Spanish citizen, Santayana was raised and educated in the [[United States]], wrote in English and is generally considered an American [[man of letters]]. Santayana is perhaps best known today for his remark that "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it",<ref>George Santayana (1905) ''Reason in Common Sense'', volume&nbsp;1 of ''[[The Life of Reason]]''</ref> and the line, "Only the dead have seen the end of war,"<ref>George Santayana (1922) ''Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies'', number 25</ref> often falsely attributed to [[Plato]].
===Early life===
Born Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás on December 16, 1863 in [[Madrid]], he spent his early childhood in [[Ávila, Spain|Ávila]]. His mother Josefina Borrás was the daughter of a Spanish official in the [[Philippines]] and Jorge was the only child of his mother's second marriage. She had previously been the widow of George Sturgis, a [[Boston]] merchant with whom she had five children, two of whom died in infancy. She lived in Boston following her husband's death in 1857, but in 1861 went with her three surviving children to live in Madrid. There she encountered Agustín Ruiz de Santayana, an old friend from her years in the Philippines, and married him in 1862. Ruiz de Santayana was a [[Colonialism|colonial]] [[civil servant]], painter, and minor [[intellectual]].


The family lived in Madrid and Ávila until 1869, when Santayana's mother returned to Boston with her three Sturgis children, leaving Jorge with his father in Spain. Jorge and his father followed her in 1872, but his father, finding neither Boston nor his wife's attitude to his liking, soon returned alone to Ávila, where he remained for the rest of his life. Jorge did not see him again until summer vacations while he was a student at [[Harvard University]]. Sometime during this period, [[Jorge]]'s first name became [[George (given name)|George]], the English equivalent.
==Early life==
Born '''Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás''' on 16 December 1863 in [[Madrid, Spain]] , he spent his early childhood in [[Ávila, Spain]]. His mother, Josefina Borrás, was the daughter of a Spanish official in the [[Philippines]]. He was the only child of his mother's second marriage. She had previously been the widow of George Sturgis, a [[Boston]] merchant with whom she had five children, two of whom died in infancy. She lived in Boston following her husband's death in 1857, but in 1861 went with her three surviving children to live in [[Madrid]]. There she encountered Agustín Ruiz de Santayana, an old friend from her years in the Philippines, and married him in 1862. Ruiz de Santayana was a [[Colonialism|colonial]] [[civil servant]], painter, and minor [[intellectual]].


===Education===
The family lived in Madrid and Ávila until 1869, when Santayana's mother returned to Boston with her three Sturgis children, leaving Jorge, then five, with his father in Spain. Jorge and his father followed her in 1872, but his father, finding neither Boston nor his wife's attitude to his liking, soon returned alone to Ávila, where he remained for the rest of his life. Jorge did not see him again until summer vacations while he was a student at [[Harvard]]. Thus from the time he was five, Jorge's parents lived apart. Sometime during this period, Jorge's first name became George, the English equivalent.
[[File:Hollis Hall, Harvard University.JPG|alt=Hollis Hall: a four-story red brick building with white trim in a courtyard.|thumb|Santayana lived in [[Hollis Hall]] during his tenure as a student at Harvard]]

==Education==
He attended [[Boston Latin School]] and [[Harvard University]], studying under [[William James]] and [[Josiah Royce]], whose colleague he subsequently became. After graduating from Harvard, [[Phi Beta Kappa]]<ref>[http://www.pbk.org/infoview/PBK_InfoView.aspx?t=&id=59 Who Belongs To Phi Beta Kappa], ’Phi Beta Kappa website’’, accessed Oct 4, 2009</ref> in 1886, he studied for two years in Berlin,<ref>{{cite journal|title='''SANTAYANA, George'''|journal=Who's Who,|year=1907|volume= 59|pages=p. 1555|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yEcuAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1555}}</ref> returning to Harvard to write a thesis on [[Hermann Lotze]] and teach philosophy, thus becoming part of the Golden Age of the Harvard philosophy department. Some of his Harvard students became famous in their own right, including [[T. S. Eliot]], [[Gertrude Stein]], [[Walter Lippmann]], [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], and [[Harry Austryn Wolfson]]. [[Wallace Stevens]] was not among his students, but one of his friends. From 1896 to 1897, he studied at [[King's College, Cambridge]].<ref>{{Venn|id=SNTN896G|name=Santayana, George}}</ref>
He attended [[Boston Latin School]] and [[Harvard University]], studying under [[William James]] and [[Josiah Royce]], whose colleague he subsequently became. After graduating from Harvard, [[Phi Beta Kappa]]<ref>[http://www.pbk.org/infoview/PBK_InfoView.aspx?t=&id=59 Who Belongs To Phi Beta Kappa], ’Phi Beta Kappa website’’, accessed Oct 4, 2009</ref> in 1886, he studied for two years in Berlin,<ref>{{cite journal|title='''SANTAYANA, George'''|journal=Who's Who,|year=1907|volume= 59|pages=p. 1555|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yEcuAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1555}}</ref> returning to Harvard to write a thesis on [[Hermann Lotze]] and teach philosophy, thus becoming part of the Golden Age of the Harvard philosophy department. Some of his Harvard students became famous in their own right, including [[T. S. Eliot]], [[Gertrude Stein]], [[Walter Lippmann]], [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], and [[Harry Austryn Wolfson]]. [[Wallace Stevens]] was not among his students, but one of his friends. From 1896 to 1897, he studied at [[King's College, Cambridge]].<ref>{{Venn|id=SNTN896G|name=Santayana, George}}</ref>


==Travels==
===Travels===
In 1912, his careful savings added to a legacy from his mother allowed him to resign his Harvard position and spend the rest of his life in Europe. After some years in Ávila, Paris and [[Oxford]], he began, after 1920, to winter in [[Rome]], eventually living there year-round until his death. During his 40 years in Europe, he wrote nineteen books and declined several prestigious academic positions. Many of his visitors and correspondents were Americans, including his assistant and eventual literary executor, Daniel Cory. In later life, Santayana was financially comfortable, in part because his 1935 novel, ''[[The Last Puritan]]'', had become an unexpected best-seller. In turn, he financially assisted a number of writers including [[Bertrand Russell]], with whom he was in fundamental disagreement, philosophically and politically. Santayana never married.
In 1912, his careful savings added to a legacy from his mother allowed him to resign his Harvard position and spend the rest of his life in Europe. After some years in Ávila, Paris and [[Oxford]], he began, after 1920, to winter in [[Rome]], eventually living there year-round until his death. During his 40 years in Europe, he wrote nineteen books and declined several prestigious academic positions. Many of his visitors and correspondents were Americans, including his assistant and eventual literary executor, Daniel Cory. In later life, Santayana was financially comfortable, in part because his 1935 novel, ''[[The Last Puritan]]'', had become an unexpected best-seller. In turn, he financially assisted a number of writers including [[Bertrand Russell]], with whom he was in fundamental disagreement, philosophically and politically. Santayana never married.


===Philosophical work and publications===
==Philosopher==
[[File:Egotism in German Philosophy (1916).djvu|alt=The first page of Egotism in German Philosophy|thumb|Although schooled in [[German idealism]], Santayana was critical of it and made an effort to distance himself from its epistemology]]
Santayana's main philosophical work consists of [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26842 The Sense of Beauty] (1896), his first book-length monograph and perhaps the first major work on [[aesthetics]] written in the United States; ''[[The Life of Reason]]'' five volumes, 1905–6, the high point of his Harvard career; ''[[Skepticism and Animal Faith|Scepticism and Animal Faith]]'' (1923); and ''[[The Realms of Being]]'' (4 vols., 1927–40). Although Santayana was not a [[pragmatism|pragmatist]] in the mold of [[William James]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], [[Josiah Royce]], or [[John Dewey]], ''The Life of Reason'' arguably is the first extended treatment of [[pragmatism]] ever written.
Santayana's main philosophical work consists of [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26842 The Sense of Beauty] (1896), his first book-length monograph and perhaps the first major work on [[aesthetics]] written in the United States; ''[[The Life of Reason]]'' five volumes, 1905–6, the high point of his Harvard career; ''[[Skepticism and Animal Faith|Scepticism and Animal Faith]]'' (1923); and ''[[The Realms of Being]]'' (4 vols., 1927–40). Although Santayana was not a [[pragmatism|pragmatist]] in the mold of [[William James]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], [[Josiah Royce]], or [[John Dewey]], ''The Life of Reason'' arguably is the first extended treatment of [[pragmatism]] ever written.


Like many of the classical pragmatists, and because he was also well-versed in [[evolutionary theory]], Santayana was committed to [[metaphysical naturalism]], in which human [[cognition]], cultural practices, and social institutions have evolved so as to harmonize with the conditions present in their environment. Their value may then be adjudged by the extent to which they facilitate human happiness. The alternate title to ''The Life of Reason'', "the Phases of Human Progress", is indicative of this [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] stance.
Like many of the classical pragmatists, and because he was also well-versed in [[evolutionary theory]], Santayana was committed to [[metaphysical naturalism]], in which human [[cognition]], cultural practices, and social institutions have evolved so as to harmonize with the conditions present in their environment. Their value may then be adjudged by the extent to which they facilitate human happiness. The alternate title to ''The Life of Reason'', "the Phases of Human Progress", is indicative of this [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] stance.


Santayana was an early adherent of [[epiphenomenalism]], but also admired the classical [[materialism]] of [[Democritus]] and [[Lucretius]] (of the three authors on whom he wrote in ''Three Philosophical Poets'', Santayana speaks most favorably of Lucretius). He held [[Spinoza]]'s writings in high regard, without subscribing to the latter's [[rationalism]] or [[pantheism]].
Santayana was an early adherent of [[epiphenomenalism]], but also admired the classical [[materialism]] of [[Democritus]] and [[Lucretius]] (of the three authors on whom he wrote in ''Three Philosophical Poets'', Santayana speaks most favorably of Lucretius). He held [[Spinoza]]'s writings in high regard, without subscribing to the latter's [[rationalism]] or [[pantheism]].


Although an [[agnostic]], he held a fairly benign view of religion in contrast to [[Bertrand Russell]] who held that religion was harmful. His views on religion are outlined in his books ''Reason in Religion'', ''The Idea of Christ in the Gospels'', and ''Interpretations of Poetry and Religion''. Santayana described himself as an "[[aesthetics|aesthetic]] [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]]", and spent the last decade of his life at the Convent of the Blue Nuns of the Little Company of Mary on the [[Celian Hill]] at 6 Via Santo Stefano Rotondo in Rome, cared for by the Irish sisters there.
Although an [[agnostic]], he held a fairly benign view of religion in contrast to [[Bertrand Russell]] who held that religion was harmful. His views on religion are outlined in his books ''Reason in Religion'', ''The Idea of Christ in the Gospels'', and ''Interpretations of Poetry and Religion''. Santayana described himself as an "[[aesthetics|aesthetic]] [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]]", and spent the last decade of his life at the Convent of the Blue Nuns of the Little Company of Mary on the [[Celian Hill]] at 6 Via Santo Stefano Rotondo in Rome, cared for by the Irish sisters there.


==Man of letters==
===Man of letters===
Santayana's one novel, ''[[The Last Puritan]]'', is a ''[[Bildungsroman]]'', that is, a novel that centers on the personal growth of the protagonist. His ''Persons and Places'' is an autobiography. These works also contain many of his tarter opinions and ''bons mots''. He wrote books and essays on a wide range of subjects, including philosophy of a less technical sort, literary criticism, the history of ideas, politics, human nature, morals, the subtle influence of religion on culture and social psychology, all with considerable wit and humor. While his writings on technical philosophy can be difficult, his other writings are far more readable, and all of his books contain quotable passages. He wrote poems and a few plays, and left an ample correspondence, much of it published only since 2000.
Santayana's one novel, ''[[The Last Puritan]]'', is a ''[[Bildungsroman]]'', that is, a novel that centers on the personal growth of the protagonist. His ''Persons and Places'' is an autobiography. These works also contain many of his tarter opinions and ''bons mots''. He wrote books and essays on a wide range of subjects, including philosophy of a less technical sort, literary criticism, the history of ideas, politics, human nature, morals, the subtle influence of religion on culture and social psychology, all with considerable wit and humor. While his writings on technical philosophy can be difficult, his other writings are far more readable, and all of his books contain quotable passages. He wrote poems and a few plays, and left an ample correspondence, much of it published only since 2000.


In his temperament, judgments and prejudices, many of which do not sit well with present-day fashions, Santayana was very much the [[Castile (historical region)|Castilian]] [[Plato]]nist, cold, aristocratic and elitist, a curious blend of Mediterranean conservative (similar to [[Paul Valéry]]) and cultivated Anglo-Saxon, aloof and ironically detached. [[Russell Kirk]] discussed Santayana in his ''The Conservative Mind from [[Edmund Burke]] to [[T. S. Eliot]]''. Like [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], Santayana observed American culture and character from a foreigner's point of view. Like [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], he wrote philosophy in a literary way. Even though he declined to become an American citizen and happily resided in fascist Italy for decades, Santayana is usually considered an American writer by Americans. He himself admitted to being most comfortable, intellectually and aesthetically, at Oxford.
In his temperament, judgments and prejudices, many of which do not sit well with present-day fashions, Santayana was very much the [[Castile (historical region)|Castilian]] [[Plato]]nist, cold, aristocratic and elitist, a curious blend of Mediterranean conservative (similar to [[Paul Valéry]]) and cultivated Anglo-Saxon, aloof and ironically detached. [[Russell Kirk]] discussed Santayana in his ''The Conservative Mind from [[Edmund Burke]] to [[T. S. Eliot]]''. Like [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], Santayana observed American culture and character from a foreigner's point of view. Like [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], he wrote philosophy in a literary way. Even though he declined to become an American citizen and happily resided in fascist Italy for decades, Santayana is usually considered an American writer by Americans. He himself admitted to being most comfortable, intellectually and aesthetically, at Oxford.


His materialistic, skeptical philosophy was never in tune with the Spanish world of his time. In the post-[[Francisco Franco|Franco]] era he is gradually being recognized and translated. [[Ezra Pound]] includes Santayana among [[List of cultural references in The Cantos|the many cultural references in]] ''[[The Cantos]]'', notably in "Canto LXXXI" and "Canto XCV". [[Chuck Jones]] used Santayana's description of [[fanaticism]] as "redoubling your effort after you've forgotten your aim" to describe his cartoons starring [[Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner]].<ref>See the sixth paragraph, [http://www.opinionjournal.com/la/?id=110004344 That's Not All, Folks! "Of course you know this means war." Who said it?], by Terry Teachout, The Wall Street Journal, November 25, 2003, (Archived at [http://www.webcitation.org/5iNjqSk1l WebCite]).</ref>
His materialistic, skeptical philosophy was never in tune with the Spanish world of his time. In the post-[[Francisco Franco|Franco]] era he is gradually being recognized and translated. [[Ezra Pound]] includes Santayana among [[List of cultural references in The Cantos|the many cultural references in]] ''[[The Cantos]]'', notably in "Canto LXXXI" and "Canto XCV". [[Chuck Jones]] used Santayana's description of [[fanaticism]] as "redoubling your effort after you've forgotten your aim" to describe his cartoons starring [[Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner]].<ref>See the sixth paragraph, [http://www.opinionjournal.com/la/?id=110004344 That's Not All, Folks! "Of course you know this means war." Who said it?], by Terry Teachout, The Wall Street Journal, November 25, 2003, (Archived at [http://www.webcitation.org/5iNjqSk1l WebCite]).</ref>
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==Legacy==
==Legacy==
[[File:Santayana on history.jpg|alt=A black placard with white text reading: "KTO NIE PAMIẸTA HISTORII SKAZANY / JEST NA JEJ PONOWNE PRZEŻYCIE" / GEORGE SANTAYANA / "THE ONE WHO DOES NOT REMEMBER / HISTORY IS BOUND TO LIVE THROUGH IT / AGAIN" / GEORGE SANTAYANA|thumb|Santayana's famous aphorism "the one who does not remember history is bound to live through it again" is inscribed on a plaque at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] translated into [[Polish language|Polish]]]]

Santayana is remembered in large part for his [[aphorism]]s, many of which are so common as to have become clichéd. His philosophy has not fared quite as well; though he is regarded by most as an excellent prose stylist, Professor [[John Lachs]] (who is sympathetic with much of Santayana's philosophy) writes in his book ''On Santayana'' that the latter's eloquence may ultimately be the cause of this neglect.
Santayana is remembered in large part for his [[aphorism]]s, many of which are so common as to have become clichéd. His philosophy has not fared quite as well; though he is regarded by most as an excellent prose stylist, Professor [[John Lachs]] (who is sympathetic with much of Santayana's philosophy) writes in his book ''On Santayana'' that the latter's eloquence may ultimately be the cause of this neglect.


Nonetheless, Santayana influenced those around him, like [[Bertrand Russell]], who in his critical essay admits that Santayana single-handedly steered him away from the ethics of [[G. E. Moore]]. He also influenced many of his prominent students, perhaps most notably the eminent poet [[Wallace Stevens]]. And, no doubt, any who study the philosophies of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] or [[materialism]] in the 20<sup>th</sup>&nbsp;Century come inevitably to Santayana, whose mark upon them has been great.
Nonetheless, Santayana influenced those around him, like [[Bertrand Russell]], who in his critical essay admits that Santayana single-handedly steered him away from the ethics of [[G. E. Moore]]. He also influenced many of his prominent students, perhaps most notably the eminent poet [[Wallace Stevens]]. And, no doubt, any who study the philosophies of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] or [[materialism]] in the 20th&nbsp;century come inevitably to Santayana, whose mark upon them has been great.


Santayana is quoted by Canadian-American sociologist [[Erving Goffman]] as a central influence in the thesis of his famous 1959 book ''The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life''.
Santayana is quoted by Canadian-American sociologist [[Erving Goffman]] as a central influence in the thesis of his famous 1959 book ''The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life''.


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
[[File:Reason in Common Sense (1920).djvu|alt=|thumb|Santayana's ''Reason in Common Sense'' was published in five volumes between 1905 and 1906; this edition is from 1920]]
===Works by Santayana===

*2009. ''The Essential Santayana. Selected Writings'' Edited by the Santayana Edition, Compiled and with an introduction by Martin A. Coleman. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
*2009. ''The Essential Santayana. Selected Writings'' Edited by the Santayana Edition, Compiled and with an introduction by Martin A. Coleman. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.


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* 1979. ''The Complete Poems of George Santayana: A Critical Edition''. Edited, with an introduction, by W. G. Holzberger. Bucknell University Press.
* 1979. ''The Complete Poems of George Santayana: A Critical Edition''. Edited, with an introduction, by W. G. Holzberger. Bucknell University Press.


The balance of this edition is published by the MIT Press.
The balance of this edition is published by the MIT Press.
* 1986. ''Persons and Places''. Santayana's autobiography, incorporating ''Persons and Places'', 1944; ''The Middle Span'', 1945; and ''My Host the World'', 1953.
* 1986. ''Persons and Places''. Santayana's autobiography, incorporating ''Persons and Places'', 1944; ''The Middle Span'', 1945; and ''My Host the World'', 1953.
* 1988 (1896). ''The Sense of Beauty''.
* 1988 (1896). ''The Sense of Beauty''.
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'''Other works''':
'''Other works''':
*1905&ndash;1906. ''[[The Life of Reason]]: Or, The Phases of Human Progress'', 5 vols. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15000 Available free online from Project Gutenberg]. 1998. 1 vol. abridgement by the author and Daniel Cory. Prometheus Books.
*1905–1906. ''[[The Life of Reason]]: Or, The Phases of Human Progress'', 5 vols. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15000 Available free online from Project Gutenberg]. 1998. 1 vol. abridgement by the author and Daniel Cory. Prometheus Books.
*1910. ''Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe''.
*1910. ''Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe''.
*1913. ''Winds of Doctrine: Studies in Contemporary Opinion''.
*1913. ''Winds of Doctrine: Studies in Contemporary Opinion''.
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*1923. ''[[Scepticism and Animal Faith]]: Introduction to a System of Philosophy''.
*1923. ''[[Scepticism and Animal Faith]]: Introduction to a System of Philosophy''.
*1927. ''Platonism and the Spiritual Life''.
*1927. ''Platonism and the Spiritual Life''.
*1927&ndash;40. ''[[The Realms of Being]]'', 4 vols. 1942. 1 vol. abridgement.
*1927–40. ''[[The Realms of Being]]'', 4 vols. 1942. 1 vol. abridgement.
*1931. ''The Genteel Tradition at Bay''.
*1931. ''The Genteel Tradition at Bay''.
*1933. ''Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy: Five Essays''.
*1933. ''Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy: Five Essays''.
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==External links==
==External links==
{{Toomanylinks}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Commons category}}
*{{sep entry|santayana|George Santayana|Herman Saatkamp}} Includes a complete bibliography of the primary literature, and a fair selection of the secondary literature
*{{sep entry|santayana|George Santayana|Herman Saatkamp}} Includes a complete bibliography of the primary literature, and a fair selection of the secondary literature
* The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: [http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/santayan.htm George Santayana] by Matthew C. Flamm
*The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: [http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/santayan.htm George Santayana] by Matthew C. Flamm
* [http://www.iupui.edu/~santedit/index.html#quota The Santayana Edition]
*[http://www.iupui.edu/~santedit/index.html#quota The Santayana Edition]
* {{gutenberg author| id=George+Santayana | name=George Santayana}}
*{{gutenberg author| id=George+Santayana | name=George Santayana}}
* [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=George%20Santayana Works by or about George Santayana at Archive.org]
*[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=George%20Santayana Works by or about George Santayana at Archive.org]
* [http://www.iupui.edu/~santedit/gsantayanaquotes.html Extensive quotations from Santayana]
*[http://www.iupui.edu/~santedit/gsantayanaquotes.html Extensive quotations from Santayana]
* [http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/George_Santayana/ 27 quotations from Santayana]
*[http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/George_Santayana/ 27 quotations from Santayana]
* [http://indiamond6.ulib.iupui.edu/Santayana/ Santayana Society] - Founded to further the work of The Santayana Edition
*[http://indiamond6.ulib.iupui.edu/Santayana/ Santayana Society] - Founded to further the work of The Santayana Edition
* [http://www.math.uwaterloo.ca/~kerrlaws/Santayana/Bulletin/seville.html ''Overheard in Seville]'': Bulletin of the Santayana Society
*[http://www.math.uwaterloo.ca/~kerrlaws/Santayana/Bulletin/seville.html ''Overheard in Seville]'': Bulletin of the Santayana Society
* Butler, Richard, O. P. (1986) "[http://www.spiritualitytoday.org/spir2day/863843butler.html George Santayana: Catholic Atheist,]" ''Spirituality Today'' 38: 319-36
*Butler, Richard, O. P. (1986) "[http://www.spiritualitytoday.org/spir2day/863843butler.html George Santayana: Catholic Atheist,]" ''Spirituality Today'' 38: 319-36
* [http://librivox.org/some-turns-of-thought-in-modern-philosophy-by-george-santayana/ Free audio recording] of ''Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy'' from [[LibriVox]]
*[http://librivox.org/some-turns-of-thought-in-modern-philosophy-by-george-santayana/ Free audio recording] of ''Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy'' from [[LibriVox]]
*{{Find a Grave|6403085}}
* [http://georgesantayana.blogspot.com/ Ghostly Messenger] A wblog dedicated to the thought of Santayana
* {{Find a Grave|6403085}}


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Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás
Born(1863-12-16)December 16, 1863
DiedSeptember 26, 1952(1952-09-26) (aged 88)
NationalitySpaniard-American
Alma materHarvard University
King's College, Cambridge
Era20th century philosophy
RegionWestern Philosophy
SchoolPragmatism, Naturalism
Notable ideas
Lucretian materialism, skepticism, natural aristocracy, The Realms of Being

George Santayana (born Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás in Madrid, December 16, 1863; died September 26, 1952, in Rome) was a Spanish American philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. A lifelong Spanish citizen, Santayana was raised and educated in the United States, wrote in English and is generally considered an American man of letters. Santayana is perhaps best known today for his remark that "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it",[1] and the line "only the dead have seen the end of war"[2]—the latter often falsely attributed to Plato. The philosophical system of Santayana is broadly considered Pragmatist due to having similar concerns as his fellow Harvard University associates William James and Josiah Royce, but he did not accept this label for his writing and eschewed any association with a philosophical school; he declared that he stood in philosophy "exactly where [he stood] in daily life."[3]

Biography

Early life

Born Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás on December 16, 1863 in Madrid, he spent his early childhood in Ávila. His mother Josefina Borrás was the daughter of a Spanish official in the Philippines and Jorge was the only child of his mother's second marriage. She had previously been the widow of George Sturgis, a Boston merchant with whom she had five children, two of whom died in infancy. She lived in Boston following her husband's death in 1857, but in 1861 went with her three surviving children to live in Madrid. There she encountered Agustín Ruiz de Santayana, an old friend from her years in the Philippines, and married him in 1862. Ruiz de Santayana was a colonial civil servant, painter, and minor intellectual.

The family lived in Madrid and Ávila until 1869, when Santayana's mother returned to Boston with her three Sturgis children, leaving Jorge with his father in Spain. Jorge and his father followed her in 1872, but his father, finding neither Boston nor his wife's attitude to his liking, soon returned alone to Ávila, where he remained for the rest of his life. Jorge did not see him again until summer vacations while he was a student at Harvard University. Sometime during this period, Jorge's first name became George, the English equivalent.

Education

Hollis Hall: a four-story red brick building with white trim in a courtyard.
Santayana lived in Hollis Hall during his tenure as a student at Harvard

He attended Boston Latin School and Harvard University, studying under William James and Josiah Royce, whose colleague he subsequently became. After graduating from Harvard, Phi Beta Kappa[4] in 1886, he studied for two years in Berlin,[5] returning to Harvard to write a thesis on Hermann Lotze and teach philosophy, thus becoming part of the Golden Age of the Harvard philosophy department. Some of his Harvard students became famous in their own right, including T. S. Eliot, Gertrude Stein, Walter Lippmann, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Harry Austryn Wolfson. Wallace Stevens was not among his students, but one of his friends. From 1896 to 1897, he studied at King's College, Cambridge.[6]

Travels

In 1912, his careful savings added to a legacy from his mother allowed him to resign his Harvard position and spend the rest of his life in Europe. After some years in Ávila, Paris and Oxford, he began, after 1920, to winter in Rome, eventually living there year-round until his death. During his 40 years in Europe, he wrote nineteen books and declined several prestigious academic positions. Many of his visitors and correspondents were Americans, including his assistant and eventual literary executor, Daniel Cory. In later life, Santayana was financially comfortable, in part because his 1935 novel, The Last Puritan, had become an unexpected best-seller. In turn, he financially assisted a number of writers including Bertrand Russell, with whom he was in fundamental disagreement, philosophically and politically. Santayana never married.

Philosophical work and publications

The first page of Egotism in German Philosophy
Although schooled in German idealism, Santayana was critical of it and made an effort to distance himself from its epistemology

Santayana's main philosophical work consists of The Sense of Beauty (1896), his first book-length monograph and perhaps the first major work on aesthetics written in the United States; The Life of Reason five volumes, 1905–6, the high point of his Harvard career; Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923); and The Realms of Being (4 vols., 1927–40). Although Santayana was not a pragmatist in the mold of William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, Josiah Royce, or John Dewey, The Life of Reason arguably is the first extended treatment of pragmatism ever written.

Like many of the classical pragmatists, and because he was also well-versed in evolutionary theory, Santayana was committed to metaphysical naturalism, in which human cognition, cultural practices, and social institutions have evolved so as to harmonize with the conditions present in their environment. Their value may then be adjudged by the extent to which they facilitate human happiness. The alternate title to The Life of Reason, "the Phases of Human Progress", is indicative of this metaphysical stance.

Santayana was an early adherent of epiphenomenalism, but also admired the classical materialism of Democritus and Lucretius (of the three authors on whom he wrote in Three Philosophical Poets, Santayana speaks most favorably of Lucretius). He held Spinoza's writings in high regard, without subscribing to the latter's rationalism or pantheism.

Although an agnostic, he held a fairly benign view of religion in contrast to Bertrand Russell who held that religion was harmful. His views on religion are outlined in his books Reason in Religion, The Idea of Christ in the Gospels, and Interpretations of Poetry and Religion. Santayana described himself as an "aesthetic Catholic", and spent the last decade of his life at the Convent of the Blue Nuns of the Little Company of Mary on the Celian Hill at 6 Via Santo Stefano Rotondo in Rome, cared for by the Irish sisters there.

Man of letters

Santayana's one novel, The Last Puritan, is a Bildungsroman, that is, a novel that centers on the personal growth of the protagonist. His Persons and Places is an autobiography. These works also contain many of his tarter opinions and bons mots. He wrote books and essays on a wide range of subjects, including philosophy of a less technical sort, literary criticism, the history of ideas, politics, human nature, morals, the subtle influence of religion on culture and social psychology, all with considerable wit and humor. While his writings on technical philosophy can be difficult, his other writings are far more readable, and all of his books contain quotable passages. He wrote poems and a few plays, and left an ample correspondence, much of it published only since 2000.

In his temperament, judgments and prejudices, many of which do not sit well with present-day fashions, Santayana was very much the Castilian Platonist, cold, aristocratic and elitist, a curious blend of Mediterranean conservative (similar to Paul Valéry) and cultivated Anglo-Saxon, aloof and ironically detached. Russell Kirk discussed Santayana in his The Conservative Mind from Edmund Burke to T. S. Eliot. Like Alexis de Tocqueville, Santayana observed American culture and character from a foreigner's point of view. Like Ralph Waldo Emerson, he wrote philosophy in a literary way. Even though he declined to become an American citizen and happily resided in fascist Italy for decades, Santayana is usually considered an American writer by Americans. He himself admitted to being most comfortable, intellectually and aesthetically, at Oxford.

His materialistic, skeptical philosophy was never in tune with the Spanish world of his time. In the post-Franco era he is gradually being recognized and translated. Ezra Pound includes Santayana among the many cultural references in The Cantos, notably in "Canto LXXXI" and "Canto XCV". Chuck Jones used Santayana's description of fanaticism as "redoubling your effort after you've forgotten your aim" to describe his cartoons starring Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner.[7]

Awards

Legacy

A black placard with white text reading: "KTO NIE PAMIẸTA HISTORII SKAZANY / JEST NA JEJ PONOWNE PRZEŻYCIE" / GEORGE SANTAYANA / "THE ONE WHO DOES NOT REMEMBER / HISTORY IS BOUND TO LIVE THROUGH IT / AGAIN" / GEORGE SANTAYANA
Santayana's famous aphorism "the one who does not remember history is bound to live through it again" is inscribed on a plaque at the Auschwitz concentration camp translated into Polish

Santayana is remembered in large part for his aphorisms, many of which are so common as to have become clichéd. His philosophy has not fared quite as well; though he is regarded by most as an excellent prose stylist, Professor John Lachs (who is sympathetic with much of Santayana's philosophy) writes in his book On Santayana that the latter's eloquence may ultimately be the cause of this neglect.

Nonetheless, Santayana influenced those around him, like Bertrand Russell, who in his critical essay admits that Santayana single-handedly steered him away from the ethics of G. E. Moore. He also influenced many of his prominent students, perhaps most notably the eminent poet Wallace Stevens. And, no doubt, any who study the philosophies of naturalism or materialism in the 20th century come inevitably to Santayana, whose mark upon them has been great.

Santayana is quoted by Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman as a central influence in the thesis of his famous 1959 book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life.

Bibliography

Santayana's Reason in Common Sense was published in five volumes between 1905 and 1906; this edition is from 1920
  • 2009. The Essential Santayana. Selected Writings Edited by the Santayana Edition, Compiled and with an introduction by Martin A. Coleman. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

The Santayana Edition:

  • 1979. The Complete Poems of George Santayana: A Critical Edition. Edited, with an introduction, by W. G. Holzberger. Bucknell University Press.

The balance of this edition is published by the MIT Press.

  • 1986. Persons and Places. Santayana's autobiography, incorporating Persons and Places, 1944; The Middle Span, 1945; and My Host the World, 1953.
  • 1988 (1896). The Sense of Beauty.
  • 1990 (1900). Interpretations of Poetry and Religion.
  • 1994 (1935). The Last Puritan: A Memoir in the Form of a Novel.
  • The Letters of George Santayana. Edited by Daniel Cory. Charles Scribner's Sons. New York. 1955. (296 letters)
  • The Letters of George Santayana. Containing over 3,000 of his letters, many discovered posthumously, to more than 350 recipients.
    • 2001. Book One, 1868–1909.
    • 2001. Book Two, 1910–1920.
    • 2002. Book Three, 1921–1927.
    • 2003. Book Four, 1928–1932.
    • 2003. Book Five, 1933–1936.
    • 2004. Book Six, 1937–1940.
    • 2005. Book Seven, 1941–1947.
    • 2006. Book Eight, 1948–1952.

Other works:

  • 1905–1906. The Life of Reason: Or, The Phases of Human Progress, 5 vols. Available free online from Project Gutenberg. 1998. 1 vol. abridgement by the author and Daniel Cory. Prometheus Books.
  • 1910. Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe.
  • 1913. Winds of Doctrine: Studies in Contemporary Opinion.
  • 1915. Egotism in German Philosophy.
  • 1920. Character and Opinion in the United States: With Reminiscences of William James and Josiah Royce and Academic Life in America.
  • 1920. Little Essays, Drawn From the Writings of George Santayana by Logan Pearsall Smith, With the Collaboration of the Author.
  • 1922. Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies.
  • 1923. Scepticism and Animal Faith: Introduction to a System of Philosophy.
  • 1927. Platonism and the Spiritual Life.
  • 1927–40. The Realms of Being, 4 vols. 1942. 1 vol. abridgement.
  • 1931. The Genteel Tradition at Bay.
  • 1933. Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy: Five Essays.
  • 1936. Obiter Scripta: Lectures, Essays and Reviews. Justus Buchler and Benjamin Schwartz, eds.
  • 1946. The Idea of Christ in the Gospels; or, God in Man: A Critical Essay.
  • 1948. Dialogues in Limbo, With Three New Dialogues.
  • 1951. Dominations and Powers: Reflections on Liberty, Society, and Government.
  • 1956. Essays in Literary Criticism of George Santayana. Irving Singer, ed.
  • 1957. The Idler and His Works, and Other Essays. Daniel Cory, ed.
  • 1967. The Genteel Tradition: Nine Essays by George Santayana. Douglas L. Wilson, ed.
  • 1967. George Santayana's America: Essays on Literature and Culture. James Ballowe, ed.
  • 1967. Animal Faith and Spiritual Life: Previously Unpublished and Uncollected Writings by George Santayana With Critical Essays on His Thought. John Lachs, ed.
  • 1968. Santayana on America: Essays, Notes, and Letters on American Life, Literature, and Philosophy. Richard Colton Lyon, ed.
  • 1968. Selected Critical Writings of George Santayana, 2 vols. Norman Henfrey, ed.
  • 1969. Physical Order and Moral Liberty: Previously Unpublished Essays of George Santayana. John and Shirley Lachs, eds.
  • 1995. The Birth of Reason and Other Essays. Daniel Cory, ed., with an Introduction by Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr. Columbia Univ. Press.

See also

References

  1. ^ George Santayana (1905) Reason in Common Sense, volume 1 of The Life of Reason
  2. ^ George Santayana (1922) Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies, number 25
  3. ^ Santayana, George (March 5, 2009), The Essential Santayana: Selected Writings (Paperback) (1st ed.), Bloomington, Indiana, United States: Indiana University Press, p. xxv, ISBN 0253221056 {{citation}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |editorn-first= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |editorn-last= ignored (help)
  4. ^ Who Belongs To Phi Beta Kappa, ’Phi Beta Kappa website’’, accessed Oct 4, 2009
  5. ^ "SANTAYANA, George". Who's Who,. 59: p. 1555. 1907. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  6. ^ "Santayana, George (SNTN896G)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  7. ^ See the sixth paragraph, That's Not All, Folks! "Of course you know this means war." Who said it?, by Terry Teachout, The Wall Street Journal, November 25, 2003, (Archived at WebCite).

Further reading

  • W. Arnett, 1955. Santayana and the Sense of Beauty, Bloomington, Indiana University Press.
  • H.T. Kirby-Smith, 1997. A Philosophical Novelist: George Santayana and the Last Puritan. Southern Illinois University Press.
  • Jeffers, Thomas L., 2005. Apprenticeships: The Bildungsroman from Goethe to Santayana. New York: Palgrave: 159-84.
  • McCormick, John, 1987. George Santayana: A Biography. Alfred A. Knopf. The biography.
  • Singer, Irving, 2000. George Santayana, Literary Philosopher. Yale University Press.

External links

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