Invasion of India by Scythian Tribes

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Invasion of India by the Scythian tribes from Central Asia is often termed as Indo-Scythian invasion. Contrary to what is often stated, the Scythian group who had invaded India and setup their respective kingdoms , a century or so prior to common era, were not merely the Sakas but several other allied tribes like Kambojas, Bahlikas, Rishikas, Paradas as well. This fact is amply proved by ancient inscriptional as well as literary evidence (both foreign asnd Indegenous) as well.

Scythians and Sakas in Classical sources

Some modrern scholars assume, implicitly or explicitly that the Scythians and Shakas, ( Sakae) were and the same people ethnically. But several earlier Greek and Latin texts indicate otherwise. The Sakai of Herodotus, were in truth, the 'Amurgioi Skuthai' (i.e. Ammyurgian Scythians) [1]. Strabo indicates that Sakai and several other tribes were known as Skuthais [2]. Arrian refers to the Sakai (Sakas) as Skuthon (a Scythian people) or the Skuthai (the Scythians) who inhabit Asia [3]. Ptolemy describes not only the Skuthios (Scythia) 'within the Imaos (Himalaya) and beyond the Imaos (i.e on the north of Himalaya), but also speaks of ‘land of the Sakais [4].

From above, it is very clear that to the above Greek and Latin writers, all Sakas were Scythians, but not all Scythians were Sakas. According to Herodotus, the Persians used to call all Skuthais by the name Sakas [5]. Pliny stated that to some tribes of the Scythae (Scythians), the Persian have given the name of Sakae (=Saka) ‘from tribe nearest to them’ [6]. This probably explains as to why the Scythians began to be called Sakas. Originally and fundamentally, the name Saka and the Skutha (Scythae) did not have the same connotations” [7].

Classical defintion of Scythia/Scythians

Strabo defines all Central Asian clans inhabiting east of Caspian Sea as Scythic or Scythian in culture [8]. Diodorus further improves upon this definition and makes Mt Hemodos as the dividing line between Scythia and India proper [9]. Mt Hemodos of the Greeks is stated to be Himalaya [10].Mt Hemodos is also known as Himaos, Imaos and Paropamisos, but Greeks generally called it Kaukasos i.e Caucasus which was Greek designation for Hindukush [11]. Himalaya of ancient Sanskrit/Pali texts extended from eastern ocean to western occean and, thus included Hindukush and Karakoram ranges as well [12].

This Scythia of the classical writers was known as Shakadvipa in ancient Sanskrit texts. It is, therefore, very clear that the Central Asian tribes living east of the Caspian Sea, north of Hindukush/Karakoram and west of China extending as far as Siberia.... all fell into Scythic or Scythian category of the ancient Greeks. Thus, Scythia was a generic term which was loosely applied to vast area of Central Asia spanning numerus groups of diverse ethnicities.

Saka settlements in Central Asia

According to Perspolis and Hamadan inscriptions of Achaemenid Darius I, there were three settlements of the Sakas viz. Saka Haumavarka, Saka Tigrakhauda and Saka Taradarya [13]. According to Herodotean evidence, Saka Haumavarka lived beyond Sogdiana (pare-Sugudam) in the area of Issyk-kul Lake, north of Jaxartes, Saka Tigrakhauda near Aral in lower valley of the Jaxartes while Saka Taradarya lived on the north of Black sea in Russian Steppes. Ancient Indian texts only know of the Shakas living north of Suguda (Sogdiana) in the Issyk-kul Lake area [14]. In the Transoxian Pamirs and regions north of it as far as Fargana lived the allied clans of Lohas, Parama Kambojas and the Rishikas [15]. All these people, obviously living in Scythia of the classical writers or the Shakadvipa of Indian texts, were lumped together and were called by the general name Sacai by Greeks and Saka by the Iranic sources.

Movements among Central Asian tribes

In the second century BCE, there started a fresh nomadic movement among the Central Asian tribes which produced a lasting effect on the history of Rome in Europe on one hand and Bactria, Kabol, Parthia and Northern India on the other. The accounts of this great tribal movement is preserved in the Annals of Han dynasty and other Chinese records. According to these sources, Mao-tun of the Hsiung-nu tribe of Mongolia attacked the Yue-chih and turned them out from their habitat Kansu. Leaving small section of the Yue-chih in Kansu behind, most of their mass moved westwards and following the foothils of Altai Mountains, entered the habitat of the Haumavarka Sakas of Issyk-kul Lake. The the Issyk-kul Sakas (Wu-sin) lost the battle so let the Yue-chih settle in their land. Little later, the Wus-uns of Issykul Lake too turned the Yue-chih out of their land with the aid of Hsiung-nu people. The Yue-chih mass, known in Chinese records as Ta-Yue-chih turned southwards and overran Fargana and northern eastern Pamirs overrunning the Parama-Kambojas, Lohas, Rishikas and other Transoxian clans living in this region. A section of the Issyk-kul Sakas had left their ancestral home in the aftermath of their initial clash with Yue-chihs. They are believed to have knocked at the Sugudas (the Shulik tribe of the Iranians) and occupied of the Doab of Oxus and Jaxartes and also overan the Greek kingdom of Bactria and occupied its eastern parts. The Ta Yue-chihs, after being defeated by Wu-sun also moved southwards and overran the Parama-Kamboja, Loha, Rishikas and other Saka clans living in this region. Again under pressure from the Ta-Yue-chis who followed them to Bactria, the Sakas moved further. First they tried to enter Kabol valley but being sternly opposed by the Greek rulers of Kabol, they rather turned westwards and then to south and finally occupied Helmund valley in soutth-west Afghanistan—the region which came to be called Sakasthan or Seistan. Scholars believe that the above Saka movement to Herat and to Drangiana was also joined by sections of Kambojas (Parama-kambojas), Rishikas and the Lohas who were were also uprooted by the invading Yue-chihs [16].

Strabo’s evidence

According to Greek chronicler Strabo, [17], Bactriana was taken by nomads like Asio, Pasianoi, Tokhario and Sakarauloi who had originally come from country from other side of Iaxartes (Central Asia). This reference conceils the information that the after being turned from Issyk-kul lake and their movements to Bactria under pressure from Ta Yue-chih, the Issyk-kul Sakas (Sakaraulois) had been joined by other tribes of the intervening regions on their southerly movements. The Asio refer to Horse People and therefore undoubtedly were from the Parama Kamboja. The Tokharios are assumed to be Rishikas who were a closely allied to the Parama-Kambojas [18]. Similarly, the Pasianois were another tribe from Central Asia. Some scholars tend to link the Rishikas with Tukharas and consider them a section of the Ta Yue-chis themselves. If we accept this connection, then the Tukharas (=Rishikas=Yue-chihs) had controlled the eastern parts of Oxus country (Tahsia) while the Sakas with Asio (Parama- Kambojas—the horse people) and the Pasinoi had occupied the western parts. Tahia is taken to mean Tukhara by some and said to have included Badakshan, Pamirs and the eastern parts of Bactria. [19] According to other scholars, it were the Saka hordes who had put an end to the Greek kingdom of Bactria [20]

Sai-wang Scythian hordes of Chipin or Kipin

A section of the Central Asian Scythians (under Sai-wang) is said to have taken southerly direction and after passing through the Pamirs and entered the Chipin or Kipin after crossing the Hasuna-tu (Hanging Pass) located above valley of Kanda n Swat [21]. Chipin has been identified by Dr S Levi, Dr Raychaudhury and some others with Kashmir [22] while other scholars identify it with Kapisha (Kapirstan) [23]. The Sai wang established his kingdom Kipin. It is believable that Saiewang belonged to the the Scythianised Kambojas (Parama-Kambojas) of the Transoxiana region and come back to settle among his own stock after being turned from Central Asian Parama Kamboja. Moga could have belonged to this group of Scythian who had migrated from the Sai country (Central Asia) to Chipin [24]>. The Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions attest that the members of the family of king Moga (q.v.) had last name Kamuia or Kamuio (q.v) which Khroshthi term has been identified by scholars with Sanskrit Kamboja or Kambojaka [25]. Thus Sai-wang and hi shordes which came to settle in Kabol valley may indeed have been from the transoxianian Parama Kambojas living in Shakadvipa or Scythian land.

Mixed hordes in Drangian/Zrangiana

Arsacid emperor Mithridates II ( c 123-88/87 BCE) had scored many successes against the Scythians and added many provinces to Parthian empire [26]. It is pointed out that the Bactrian Scythain hordes were also conquered by him. A section of these people then moveec from Bactria to Lake Helmond and settled about Drangiana/Zrangiana which region later came to be called ‘Sakistana of the Skythian (Scythian) Sakai’ by the time of compostion Isodor of Charax, Sathmoi Parthikoi, 18, towards the end of first century BCE. .[27]. The region is still known as Seistan.

Scholars hold that Sakistan or Seistan of Drangiana was not only the habitat of the Saka alone but it also contained popualtion of the Pahlavas and the Kambojas who have all been lumped together and labelled as Sakas [28]. The nomenclature of the early Sakas in India contains a mixture of Saka, Parthian and Iranian elements [29]. There was a numerous popualtion of the Sakas in Afghanistan but the Rock Edicts of king Ashoka only refer to the Yavanas, Kambojas and the Gandharas but no mention is made of the Sakas. Thus, whatever Saka population was living in Afghanistann, it has been included and counted among the Kambojas[30]. Numerous Sakas had settled in Mathura around the start of Christain era and the city was also their capital or political headquarters. But Mahabharata verses composed around this time only attests theKambojas and Yavanas as the inhabitants of Mathura but does not make any mention the Sakas [31].Obviously, the Indian epic has included the Sakas of Mathura among the Kambojas or Yavanas here. In fact, the term Yavana had become a common designation for the Barbarins or Mlechchas and was commonly used for all aliens or foreigners [32]. In view of the foregoing discussion, it is thus safe ton conclude that the Drangiana country and its surrounding area commnly called Sakistan was the common habitat for the Sakas, Pahlavas and the Kambojas-Rishikas [33] .

Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern India

There are very important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana also[34]. Foremost Indologists like Dr H. C. Raychadhury clearly see in these verses the glimpses of struggles of the Hindus with the mixed invading hordes of the above said Mlechcha barbarians from the northwest. The time frame for these struggles is second century BCE downwards. Dr Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana around/after second century CE [35].

This above picture presented by Ramayana probably refers to the political scenario when these mixed hordes from about the Sakasthan had advanced to lower Indus valley via Bolan Pass and further spread into Indian mainland and were struggling to seize political control of Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Malwa, Maharashtra and further of eastern, central and southern India. Mahabharata too has a veiled clue to the invasion of these mixed hordes from northwest. Vanaparava of Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy deploring that "......the Mlechha (barbaric) kings of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas etc shall rule the earth (i.e India) un-rightously in Kaliyuga..." [36].

This reference apparently alludes to chaotic political scenario following the collapse of Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and its subsequent occupation by foreign hordes of the Sakas, Yavaans, Kambojas and Pahlavas etc.

Kambojas-Sakas in control of Mathura

Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that Mathura was under control of the Sakas and the Kambojas. The inscriptions contains references to Kharostes Kamuio (Kamboja) and Auyasi Kamuia (Kambojaka). Yuvaraja Kharostes (kshatrapa) was son of Arta as is attested by his own coins [37]. Arta is stated to be brother of king Moga or Maues [38]. Princess Aiyasi Kambojaka also called Kambojika was the chief queen of Shaka Mahakshatrapa Ranjuvulla. This shows that Sakas and Kambojas had jointly ruled over Mathura/Uttara Pradesh. As stated before, Mahabharata verses composed around the beginning of Christian era strongly attests that the Kambojas and Yavanas were in control of Mathura country[39]. “Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting”[40].

Dr Buddha Prakash observes: "Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered Indian mainland and spread into whole of North India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pradesh. Mahabharata contains references to Yavanas and Kambojas having conquered Mathura (12/105/5)....There is also a reference to the Kambojas in the Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions of Saka Satrap (Kshatrapa) Rajuvula found in Mathura "[41].

The term Kamboja in the above verses of Mahabharata seems to include both the Kambojas as well as the Sakas.

Kamboja principalities West/Southwest India

Markendeya Purana (57.35) lists the Kambojas and Pahlavas among the countries of Udichya division i.e Uttarapatha, but next chapter (58.30-32) of the same Markendeya Purana also refers to other settlements of the Kambojas and Pahlavas and locates them in the south-west of India as neighbor to Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (north Saurashtra) countries [42].

Brhatsamhita of Varaha Mihira (6th century CE) also locates one Kamboja and Pahlava settlement specifically in the South-west (nairrtyam dizi = south-west) of India as neighbors to Sindhu, Sauvira, Saurashtra and Dravida [43].

Arthashastra of Barhaspatya [44] refers to the Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) and locates it adjacent to the Dasrana country (southern Malwa), east of Gujarat [45].

Vishnu Dharmottari (I.9.6) also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India [46].

Raajbilaas, a medieval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of SW India.[47].

The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshina.path.vasinah) [48].

Interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in India itself....... Kambhoja in south-west India and Kamboja in southern parts of India [49].

The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly establish the historical fact that in wake of major events of second/first century BCE, some sections of Central Asian Kambojas in alliance with the Sakas and Pahlavas, had spread and settled into western and south-western parts of India.

The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c CE).

Due to the above cited literary/inscriptional evidence, some historians like Dr Aiyangar, Dr Banerjee etc have located their Kamboja in Sindhu and Gujarat [50]. Obviously, their Kamboja refers to the post-Christian settlements of Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not the original Kamboja of the Sanskrit/Pali literature.

Biography of Shankara Acharya based on his religious itineraries refers to Kambhoja located in Saurashtra comprising Girnar, Somnath, Prabhasa and other regions and a Kamboja located in Central Asia adjacent to Daradistan but lying north of Kashmir. This eighth-century reference clearly attests two Kamboja settlements, one of which specifically fixed in Saurashtra [1]. Some historians have also invested western Kshatrapas, especially the Kshahrata Kshatrapas with Kamboja ethnicity [51].

Kambhoja Raja Kathalu is very popular in Andhra traditions. The story deals with militaristic exploits of a fierce and adventuours king of Kambojas. It probably relates to some historical brush the Andhraites might have had with the intruding hordes of Kambojas/Pahlavas around Christian era.

The Kamboja hordes of second/first century BCE have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers, and some geographical places in western India. The Kamb/Kambuh river and Kamboh/Kambo mountain in Sindh ( Sind, p 44, M. R. Lamrick) remind us of Sanskrit Kamboja. The Kamboi (ancient town/port) in district Patan, Khambhoj in district Anand, Kambay (port/town and Gulf)... all in Saurashtra; Kumbhoj/Kambhoj (an ancient town) in Kolhapur in Maharashtra; and the Koimbatore city of Tamilnadu in southern India carry unmistakable footprints of Kambojas. There is also an ancient Kambhoj caste living near Nanded in Maharashtra which could be a dwindling remnant of ancient Kambojas who had settled in SW India around Christian era.

References

  1. ^ History, VII, 64
  2. ^ Strabo, XI, 8, 2
  3. ^ Ambaseos Alexandrou, III, 8, 3
  4. ^ Geography VI, 12, 1f; VI, 13; 1f, VI, 15, 1f
  5. ^ Herodotus Book VII, 64
  6. ^ Naturalis Historia, VI, 19, 50
  7. ^ Dr B. N. Mukerjee, Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 690-91.
  8. ^ See: Lib.xi, p 254; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod
  9. ^ See: Indika, Fragment 1, Diodorus II.35; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod.
  10. ^ Qv: Nonnos Dionysiaca 40.260
  11. ^ Qv: Fragment IV, Strabo XV.i. II, p 689
  12. ^ Ref: Sumangavilasini, I.1; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 65
  13. ^ Select Inscriptions bearing on the Indian History and Civilization, Vol I, p 10
  14. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 381, 691-92, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury and Dr B. N. Murkerjee
  15. ^ Lohan ParamaKambojanRishikan uttaranpi...Mahabharata 2.27.25
  16. ^ The Joint alliance of the Saka, Kamboja (Parama-Kamboja) , Rishika, Loha, Parda to resisit the assault of the Ta Yue-chis and later their joint movement towards south-west is understandable. These tribes were all living as neigborly tribes and have been interacting which each other since long time. Therefore, they must have all jointly resisted the Yue-chih advance together, and after being defeated, many of their sections must have jointly left together in search of better pastures and lands of opportunity. The Saka, Kamboja, Pahlava, Parda alliance has been numerously attested in earlier Indian literature also. They had jointly invaded India a couple of times earlier. The Bahu-Sagara vs Haihaya-Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas etc alliance is well known in history. The Sakas and Tusharas had also fought the Kurukshetra war under supreme command of Kamboja Sudakshina. The Ramayana also attests that the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Yavanas had fought together against the Vedic Hindu king Vishwamitra of Kanauj etc etc. Hence a common and front front by these neighborly tribes against the invading hordes of the Yue-chihs was but natural.
  17. ^ XI.8.2.
  18. ^ Lohan. Parama. Kambojan.Rishikan.uttaranapi:MBH 2.27.25; Kambojarishika ye cha MBH 5.5.15 etc
  19. ^ cf: “It appears likely that like the Yue-chis, the Scythians had also occupied a part of Transoxiana before conquering Bactria. If the Tokhario, who were the same as or affiliated with Yue-chis, and who who were mistaken as Scythians people particiapated in the same series of invasions of Bactria of the Greeks, then it may be inferred that eastern Bactria was conquered by Yue-chis and the western other nomadic peopl in abpout the same period. In other words, the Greek rule in Bactria was was put to end in c 130/29 BCE due to invasion by the Great Yue-chis and the Scythians (Sakas) nomads (Commentary: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692-93, Dr B. N. Mukerjee)
  20. ^ Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510; Taxila, Vol I, p 24, Marshal, Early History of North India, p 50, Dr S. Chattopadhyava
  21. ^ Serindia, Vol I, 1980 Edition, p 8, M. A. Stein
  22. ^ Op cit p 693, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Early History of North India, p 3, Dr S. Chattopadhyava; India and Central Asia, p 126, Dr P. C. Bagchi
  23. ^ Epigraphia Indiaca XIV, p 291 Dr S Konow; Greeks in Bactria and India, p 473, fn, Dr W. W. Taran; Yuan Chwang I, p 259-60, Watters; Comprehensive History of India, Vol I, p 189, Dr N. K. Sastri;
  24. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p fn 13, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Chilas, Islamabad, 1983, no 72, 78, 85, pp 98, 102, A. H. Dani
  25. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II, Part 1, p xxxvi, see also p 36; Bihar and Orisaa Research Society, Vol XVI, 1930, part III and IV, p 229 etc
  26. ^ Justin XL.II.2)
  27. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 693.
  28. ^ See refs: The Sakas in India, p 14, Dr S. Chattopadhyaya; The Development of Khroshthi Script, p 77, Dr C. C. Dasgupta; Hellenism in Ancient India, p 120, Dr G. N. Banerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 308, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 169, S Kirpal Singh etc
  29. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 121, (Ed) Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Ancient India, 2003, p 116, Dr V. D. Mahajan
  30. ^ Journal of Bohar and Orissa Research Society, Vol XVI, Parts III and IV, 1930, p 229; Hindu Polity, 1943, p 144, Dr K. P. Jayswal
  31. ^ Mahabharata 12.101.5.
  32. ^ Journal of Asiiatic Society of ofBengal, Vol XLIII., part I, 1874, pp 260, 271; Helleniosm in Ancient India, pp 19-20, G. N. Banerjee
  33. ^ See Detailed discussion in Ancient Kamboja People annd the Country, 1981, pp 296-30, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 158-61, 166-70, S Kirpal Singh
  34. ^
    taih asit samvrita bhuumih Shakaih-Yavana mishritaih || 1.54-21 ||
    taih taih Yavana-Kamboja barbarah ca akulii kritaah || 1-54-23 ||
    tasya humkaarato jatah Kamboja ravi sannibhah |
    udhasah tu atha sanjatah Pahlavah shastra panayah || 1-55-2 ||
    yoni deshaat ca Yavanah Shakri deshat Shakah tathaa |
    roma kupesu Mlecchah ca Haritah sa Kiratakah || 1-55-3 ||.
  35. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 3-4.
  36. ^
    viparite tada loke purvarupa.n kshayasya tat || 34 ||
    bahavo mechchha rajanah prithivyam manujadhipa |
    mithyanushasinah papa mrishavadaparayanah || 35 ||
    Andhrah Shakah Pulindashcha Yavanashcha naradhipah |
    Kamboja Bahlikah Shudrastathabhira narottama || 36 ||
    — (MBH 3.188.34-36).
  37. ^ Kshatrapasa pra Kharaostasa Artasa putrasa; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 398, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee.
  38. ^ Ancient India, pp 220-221, Dr R. k. Mukerjee; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 168-169, S Kirpal Singh; Ancient kamboja, Peopleand the Country, 1981, p p 306-09, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II,Part 1, p 36, D S Konow
  39. ^ .
    tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye.|
    ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah. ||
    (MBH 12.101.5).
  40. ^ (Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal.
  41. ^ India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Ancient India, 1956, p 220, Dr R. K. Mukerjee
  42. ^ Markendeya 58.30-32
  43. ^ .
    nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja Sindhu Sauvirah/
    hemagiri Sindhu Kalaka Raivataka surastra Badara Dravidah/
    — (Brhatsamhita 14/17-19).
    See also: India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira, 1969, Dr A. M. Shastri, Reader in Ancient Indian History & Culture, Nagpur University
  44. ^ Ed. F. W. Thomas, pp 20-22.
  45. ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, XXVI-2, 1950, p 127
  46. ^ Geographical. Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 163, 206
  47. ^ .
    sorata gurjara kachcha-kamboja-gauda rukha:
    — (Raajbilaas 1/122)
  48. ^ .
    pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah:
    carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah:
    — (Garuda Purana 1/15/13)
  49. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305
  50. ^ Ancient India, p 7, S. K. Aiyangar; Public Administration in Ancient India, p 56, P. N. Banerjee
  51. ^ Ancient India, III, pp 94, 125, Dr T. L. Shah

Books and Perodicals

Political History of ancient India, 1996, Dr H. C. raychaudhury
Hindu Polity, A Constitutional history of India in Hindu Times, 1978, Dr K. P. Jayswal
Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, Dr M. R. Singh
Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj
Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S Kipal Singh
India and Central Asia, 1955, Dr P. C. Bagchi
Geography of Puranas, 1973, Dr S. M. Ali
Greeks in Bactria and India, Dr W. W. Tarn
Early History of North India, Dr S. Chattopadhyava
Sakas in Ancient India, Dr S. Chattopadhyava
Development of Kharoshthi script, C. C. Dasgupta
Ancient India, 1956, Dr R. K. Mukerjee
India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash
These Kamboj People, 1979, K. S. Dardi
Ancient India, Vol III, Dr T. L. Shah
Hellenism in Ancient India, Dr G. N. Banerjee
Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol XLIII, Part I, 1884
Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol XVI, Part III, & IV, 1930
Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal
Anabaseeos Alexanddrou, Arrian
Geography, by Ptolemy
Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions
Corpus Inscriptionium Indicarum, Vol II, Part I, Dr S Konow

See also

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