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</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2010}}, defines the core beliefs of most Libertarians as including:
</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2010}}, defines the core beliefs of most Libertarians as including:
"Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties."{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
"Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties."{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

There is substantial variation in philosophies with the word "Libertarian" in them to the extent that some consider them to have only the word in common. This includes dramatic variations are in matters of degree (e.g. reducing vs. abolishing government) and in areas not within shared tenets. (e.g. for and against ownership of private property.) Libertarianism in practice also varies, with organizations often being composed of Libertarians with disparate philosophies defining themselves by common tenets and objectives rather than the individual philosophies.


==History==
==History==

Revision as of 10:03, 24 September 2010

This article is about the political philosophy. For other uses, see Libertarianism (disambiguation).
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Libertarianism is the advocacy of individual liberty, especially freedom of thought and action.[1] Roderick T. Long defines libertarianism as "any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power [either "total or merely substantial"] from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals", whether "voluntary association" takes the form of the free market or of communal co-operatives.[2]

Today, in the English-speaking world, libertarianism is most commonly associated with a free-market capitalist position.[3][verification needed] However libertarianism has also long been associated with, and used as a synonym for, anarchism, especially outside of the United States.[4] Today anarchism continues to be a major strand within libertarianism, whether in the form of libertarian socialism or individualist anarchism (which includes the anarcho-capitalist variant, which favours the free market).[5][6]

Overview

Libertarians exhibit differing approaches in areas such as the treatment of property rights, especially with respect to natural resources, with some libertarians advocating private ownership rights, while others hold that private ownership should be avoided as being inconsistent with the basic principles of libertarianism. Respectively, these groups are broadly distinguished as the right-libertarian and left-libertarian variants of libertarianism.[7] Minarchists advocate a minimal state, while anarcho-capitalists believe aggression should be countered without the state. Libertarian socialists believe that liberty is best achieved through large-scale decentralization to empower workers, with the result of eliminating both the state and private capitalist organizations, which they view as coercive.[8]

The largest Libertarian organization, the US Libertarian Party (as of 2004, 115,401 reported members)[9][verification needed], defines the core beliefs of most Libertarians as including: "Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties."[citation needed]

There is substantial variation in philosophies with the word "Libertarian" in them to the extent that some consider them to have only the word in common. This includes dramatic variations are in matters of degree (e.g. reducing vs. abolishing government) and in areas not within shared tenets. (e.g. for and against ownership of private property.) Libertarianism in practice also varies, with organizations often being composed of Libertarians with disparate philosophies defining themselves by common tenets and objectives rather than the individual philosophies.

History

Etymology

The term libertarian in a metaphysical or philosophical sense was first used by late-Enlightenment free-thinkers to refer to those who believed in free will, as opposed to determinism.[10] The first recorded use was in 1789 by William Belsham in a discussion of free will and in opposition to "necessitarian" (or determinist) views.[11][12]

The use of the word 'libertarian' to describe a set of political positions can be tracked to the French cognate, libertaire, which was coined in 1857 by French anarchist communist Joseph Déjacque who used the term to distinguish his libertarian communist approach from the mutualism advocated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.[13][13][14][15] Hence libertarian has been used as a synonym for left-wing anarchism or libertarian socialism since the 1890s.[16]

In the 1950s in the United States many with classical liberal beliefs began to describe themselves as "libertarian."[17] Academics as well as proponents of the free market perspectives note that free market libertarianism has been successfully propagated beyond the US since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties[18][19] and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed worldwide as a free market position.[20][21] However, Libertarian socialists Noam Chomsky, Colin Ward and others say the term is still considered a synonym of anarchism in countries other than the US.[22][23][24]

The term libertarianism is sometimes used as a synonym for anarchism, with that use being especially common outside the United States,[4] which some explain this to be the original meaning of the term. Hence, under that definition, "libertarian socialism" is equivalent to "socialist anarchism".[6][25] The American use of term includes non-anarchist free-market political philosophy.

Philosophical origins and history

Enlightenment ideas of individual liberty, limited government, peace and a free market were part of a growing movement in the 19th century. Peter Kropotkin's The Great French Revolution (1909) asserts that the principles of anarchism had their origin in the directly democratic sections of Paris.[26] According to the same author's 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article on anarchism, the economic and, in particular, the mutual banking ideas of Proudhon were applied by supporters in the United States.[27] The article states that, "It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch, the penetration, on the one hand, of anarchist ideas into modern literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the libertarian ideas of the best contemporary writers have exercised upon the development of anarchism." Writers he names include John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Jean-Marie Guyau, Alfred Jules Émile Fouillée, Multatuli, Richard Wagner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ralph Waldo Emerson, William Lloyd Garrison and Henry David Thoreau.[28]

Numerous left libertarians or libertarian socialists around the world have labeled themselves as such throughout the 20th century.[29][30][31] The most significant manifestations at a mass level of libertarian groups opposed to the property principle have been revolutionary socialist workers' movements. Examples repeatedly cited in the literature include the American Industrial Workers of the World, the Makhnovist movement in Ukraine during the Russian revolution of 1917, the CNT and the FAI during the Spanish Civil War, and the Italian autonomist movement. The EZLN movement in Mexico has maintained a significance within Mexican politics since the early 1990s.

Some proponents within the growing movement for more civil liberties also pursued strong private property rights, and this movement came to be referred to as liberalism. While liberalism kept that meaning in most of the world, modern liberalism in the United States began to take a more statist approach to economic regulation.[32][33] While conservatism in Europe continued to mean conserving hierarchical class structures through state control of society and the economy, some conservatives in the United States began to refer to conserving traditions of liberty. This was especially true of the Old Right, who opposed the New Deal and U.S. military interventions in World War I and World War II.[34][35]

Those who held to the earlier liberal views began to call themselves market liberals, classic liberals or libertarians to distinguish themselves.[33] (Some limited government advocates still use the term "libertarianism" almost interchangeably with the term classical liberalism.)[36][37]

The Austrian School of economics, influenced by Frédéric Bastiat and later by Ludwig von Mises,[38] also had an impact on both economic teaching and right-libertarian principles.[39][40] It influenced economists, political philosophers, and theorists including Israel Kirzner and Murray Rothbard.

Modern libertarianism was influenced by Ayn Rand's international bestsellers The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957) and her books about her philosophy of Objectivism [41] Two other women also published influential pro-freedom books in 1943, Rose Wilder Lane's The Discovery of Freedom and Isabel Paterson's The God of the Machine.[42]

Arizona United States Senator Barry Goldwater's libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement,[43] through his book The Conscience of a Conservative and his run for president in 1964.[44] Goldwater's speech writer, Karl Hess, became a leading libertarian writer and activist.[45]

The Vietnam War split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self-identified libertarians, anarchist libertarians, and more traditional conservatives who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians opposed to the war joined the draft resistance and peace movements and organisations such as Students for a Democratic Society. They began founding their own publications, like Murray Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum[46][47] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance.[48]

The split was aggravated at the 1969 Young Americans for Freedom convention, when more than 300 libertarians organized to take control of the organization from conservatives. The burning of a draft card in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees, a walkout by a large number of libertarians, the creation of libertarian organizations like the Society for Individual Liberty, and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations.[49] The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F. Buckley, Jr., in a 1971 New York Times article, attempted to divorce libertarianism from the freedom movement. He wrote: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded."[42]

In 1971, David Nolan and a few friends formed the Libertarian Party.[50] Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, it has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. By 2006, polls showed that 15 percent of American voters identified themselves as libertarian.[51] Over the years, dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s, and others have been created since then.[52]

Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[53] According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs, "Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia."[54]

Principles

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states a strict view of libertarianism "holds that agents initially fully own themselves and have moral powers to acquire property rights in external things under certain conditions," and that "in a looser sense, libertarianism is any view that approximates the strict view."[55] Also noted is that libertarianism is not a "right-wing" doctrine because of its opposition to laws restricting adult consensual sexual relationships and drug use, and its opposition to imposing religious views or practices and compulsory military service. The Stanford Encyclopedia further describes versions of libertarianism, such as “left-libertarianism” stating that this philosophy also endorses full self-ownership, but "differs on unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.)." "Right-libertarianism" holds that such resources may be appropriated by individuals while "left-libertarianism" holds that they belong to everyone and must be distributed in some egalitarian manner.[55]

Also stated is that libertarianism is attractive because "(1) it provides significant moral liberty of action, (2) it provides significant moral protection against interference from others, and (3) it is sensitive to what the past was like (e.g., what agreements were made and what rights violations took place)."[56] Libertarians generally advocate the maximization of freedom of thought and action with few exceptions. One exception shared by libertarians is that the actions of an individual should not infringe upon the freedom of any other person, a premise believed by many libertarians to be expressed best through the non-aggression principle.

Some minarchists believe a minimal state would be preferable, while more anarchist libertarians hold the belief that society functioning without any recognized government is preferable.[57] The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes the minimal state as providing only law enforcement, a judicial assembly, and armed forces; also described is the right-libertarian view called anarcho-capitalism which holds that government can be completely abolished because private companies working for profit should provide the court systems, military, and police forces;[57] alternatively, some of the more anarchist libertarians subscribe to libertarian socialism, which seeks the elimination of government with a view on property rights that differs from anarcho-capitalism.[8] Some ideals of libertarians exhibit a sharp contrast in the treatment of property rights, especially with respect to natural resources, with some libertarians advocating the grant of strong private ownership rights,[56] and others holding that private ownership of certain resources allows people to take what is others have ownership of and, thus, should be avoided as being inconsistent with the basic principles of libertarianism.[8] Broadly, the view of ownership is one key distinction between left-libertarianism and right-libertarianism.

Right-libertarianism is more widely known than left-libertarianism.[58] Though called "right-libertarians," there may be difficulty in placing the philosophy onto the conventional left/right political spectrum as right-libertarians may show strong support for traditionally left-wing issues, such as broad freedom from search and seizure, freedom of the press, and other civil liberties. Consequently some libertarians reject being described as "left" or "right."[59]

According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

Libertarians are committed to the belief that individuals, and not states or groups of any other kind, are both ontologically and normatively primary; that individuals have rights against certain kinds of forcible interference on the part of others; that liberty, understood as non-interference, is the only thing that can be legitimately demanded of others as a matter of legal or political right; that robust property rights and the economic liberty that follows from their consistent recognition are of central importance in respecting individual liberty; that social order is not at odds with but develops out of individual liberty; that the only proper use of coercion is defensive or to rectify an error; that governments are bound by essentially the same moral principles as individuals; and that most existing and historical governments have acted improperly insofar as they have utilized coercion for plunder, aggression, redistribution, and other purposes beyond the protection of individual liberty.[60]

Friedman, and others, differentiate between two main kinds of libertarianism, on the basis of the grounds used to justify individual liberty.[61] They argue that deontological libertarians are focused on moral rules, and believe that the test of the morality of an act is whether it constitutes an "initiation of force," regarding force as permissible only in defence of people or property. On the other hand, consequentialist libertarians are soley concerned with whether an act has favourable consequences. These latter libertarians focus on the benefits of introducing more "liberty" into society.[62][63][64] Some libertarianism may be a hybrid of consequentialism and deontology.[64]

The Nolan chart, used by some pro-property libertarians, expands upon the traditional "right-left" spectrum.

All schools of libertarianism support strong personal rights to life and liberty, though there is disagreement on the subject of private property. One relatively popular formulation of libertarianism supports free market capitalism[58] by advocating a right to private property, including property in the means of production,[65] minimal government regulation of that property, minimal taxation, and rejection of the welfare state, all within the context of the rule of law.[66][67][68] Some pro-property libertarians are anarchists who call for the elimination of the state.[69]

A number of countries have libertarian parties that run candidates for political office. The US Libertarian Party supports a right-libertarian platform; a form of right-libertarianism aligned with libertarian conservatism is dominant among the schools of libertarianism in the US.[70][71] In Europe, scholars have studied "the 'family' of left-libertarian movements in...France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland";[72] the Danish Socialist People's Party is one of the political parties considered to be left-libertarian.[73]

Isaiah Berlin's 1958 essay "Two Concepts of Liberty" describes a difference between negative liberty, which limits the power of the state to interfere, and positive liberty, in which a paternalistic state helps individuals achieve self-realization and self-determination. He believed these were rival and incompatible interpretations of liberty, and held that demands for positive liberty lead to authoritarianism.[74]

Libertarians hold four ethical views. For libertarians who favor property rights consequentialist libertarianism—which is support for a large degree of "liberty" because it leads to favorable consequences, such as prosperity or efficiency—is contrasted with deontological libertarianism (also known as "rights-theorist libertarianism," "natural rights libertarianism," or "libertarian moralism"), which is a philosophy based on belief in moral self-ownership and opposition to "initiation of force" and fraud.[failed verification] Others combine a hybrid of consequentialist and deontologist thinking.[75] Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed, but from contract or mutual agreement.[76][77][78] Libertarian Socialists reject de-ontological and rights based approaches and use either normative or non-normative class-struggle methodologies rooted in Hegelian thought to justify direct action.[79]

Libertarians maintain that what is immoral for the individual must necessarily be immoral for all state agents and that the state should not be above the law.[80][81]

Libertarianism is not a complete moral or aesthetic theory; it is only a political theory, that is, the subset of moral theory that deals with the proper role of violence in social life.[80] Thus, while libertarianism holds that the state should not, for instance, forcibly prohibit prostitution, it makes no judgments on whether prostitution is an ethical activity; indeed, some libertarians condemn prostitution as immoral. Walter Block writes, "How, then, can we defend the immoral activities of some market actors? This stems from the philosophy of libertarianism, which is limited to analyzing one single problem. It asks, under what conditions is violence justified? And it answers, violence is justified only for purposes of defense, or in response to prior aggression, or in retaliation against it. This means, among other things, that government is not justified in fining, punishing, incarcerating, imposing death penalties on people who act in an immoral manner—as long as they refrain from threatening or initiating physical violence on the persons or property of others."[82]

Forms of libertarianism

Libertarian views vary with respect to how much state would survive in a libertarian society and how much property should be held privately by individuals and groups.[83] The following are some of the groups that are included under a broad concept of "libertarianism". For a complete list see List of political ideologies.

Minarchism

Main article: Minarchism

Minarchism refers to the belief in a state limited to police forces, courts, and a military. In minarchism, the state neither regulates nor intervenes in personal choices and business practices, except to protect against aggression, breach of contract, and fraud.[84][85] Both market anarchists and minarchists oppose victimless crimes, the War on Drugs, compulsory education, and conscription at all levels of government.[85]

However, minarchists often disagree on the level of government centralization. This ranges from the centralist minarchists who support the enforcement of laws at the global or national governments, to the middle-ground minarchists who advocate states' rights or increased autonomy at the state level, and to the decentralist minarchists who think that every city or town should have its own government.[citation needed]

Libertarian conservatism

Main article: Libertarian conservatism

Libertarian conservatism (also known as "conservative libertarianism" or "right-libertarianism") describes certain political ideologies that attempt to meld libertarian and conservative ideas, often called "fusionism."[86][87] Anthony Gregory writes that right, or conservative, "libertarianism can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations" such as being "interested mainly in 'economic freedoms'"; following the "conservative lifestyle of right-libertarians"; seeking "others to embrace their own conservative lifestyle"; considering big business "as a great victim of the state"; favoring a "strong national defense"; and having "an Old Right opposition to empire."[88]

Conservatives hold that shared values, morals, standards, and traditions are necessary for social order while libertarians consider individual liberty as the highest value.[89] Laurence M. Vance writes: "Some libertarians consider libertarianism to be a lifestyle rather than a political philosophy... They apparently don't know the difference between libertarianism and libertinism."[90] However, Edward Feser emphasizes that libertarianism does not require individuals to reject traditional conservative values.[86]

Some "libertarian constitutionalists" like U.S. Representative Ron Paul believe liberty can be obtained through proper interpretation of the United States Constitution, something that would not allow federal incursions on the economy and civil liberties.[91][92] Other libertarians critique constitutionalism for failure of its proponents to check the growth of government power.[93][94][95]

Left-libertarianism

Main article: Left-libertarianism

Left-libertarianism is usually regarded as a doctrine that has an egalitarian view concerning natural resources, holding that it is not legitimate for someone to claim private ownership of such resources to the detriment of others.[55][96][97][98] Most left libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources, including Georgist supporters of a single tax.[98][99] Some claim it is standard for left-libertarians to support substantial redistributive welfare programs.[100] Left libertarianism is defended by contemporary theorists such as Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner and Michael Otsuka.[97] The term is also sometimes used as a synonym for libertarian socialism.[101]

The Encyclopedia of Political Theory describes Noam Chomsky as an anti-statist left-libertarian.[102] Chomsky shares an egalitarian view of resources such as natural capital. Left-Libertarians like Chomsky[103] promote free association in place of governments and institutions of capitalism (if defined as private ownership and control over means of production).[8] Chomsky has described this libertarian socialism as an anarchist philosophy.[8]

Some members of the U.S. libertarian movement, including the late Samuel Edward Konkin,[104] and such members of the Alliance of the Libertarian Left[105] as Roderick Long,[106] and Gary Chartier support property rights and identify themselves with the political left for a variety of reasons. They tend to oppose intellectual property,[107] war, and state policies they believe cause poverty.[108]

Libertarian socialism

Main article: Libertarian socialism

Libertarian socialism promotes a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, stateless society without private property in the means of production. Libertarian socialism promotes free association in place of government. Additionally, it opposes the alleged coercive social relations of capitalism, such as wage labor. The term libertarian socialism is used by some socialists to differentiate their philosophy from state socialism[109][110] or as a synonym for socialist anarchism.[6][111][112]

Libertarian socialists assert that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian control of the means of production.[113] Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of direct democracy such as municipalities, citizens' assemblies, trade unions and workers' councils.[114]

Libertarian socialism includes most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism,[115] mutualism[116] and social ecology[117]) as well as some varieties of Marxism (such as autonomism), and some versions of individualist anarchism.[118] Some libertarian socialists, such as Noam Chomsky, are willing to use the powers of the state until it can be overthrown.[119] In addition, some varieties of Fabianism and socialist social-democracy, which do not seek stateless societies or the abolition of capitalism, are libertarian socialist.[120]

Anarcho-capitalism

Main article: Anarcho-capitalism

Anarcho-capitalism (also known as “libertarian anarchy”[121][122] or “market anarchism”[123] or “free market anarchism”[124]) is a libertarian[125][126] and an individualist anarchist[127] political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state and the provision of its services through the free market. In an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services are provided by voluntarily funded competitors such as private defense agencies rather than through compulsory taxation.[128] Anarcho-capitalism has been described as a radical form of libertarianism.[129]

In the early 1990s Murray Rothbard, who coined the term anarcho-capitalism,[130][131] and Lew Rockwell devised a school of thought called "Paleolibertarianism" as a reaction to libertarians in Washington who had become a "market-based" solutions pressure group. It focused on replacing the state with capitalism and private government. However, because "paleolibertarian" later became confused with paleoconservative, Rockwell no longer favours the use of the term.[132]

Libertarian transhumanism

Main article: Libertarian transhumanism

Libertarian transhumanism asserts that the principle of self-ownership is fundamental to both libertarianism and transhumanism. The philosophy advocates free market individualism as the best vehicle for technological progress and the "right to human enhancement."[133][134] Some criticize it as utopian, overly reliant on technology or biological fetishism.[135][136][137]

Geolibertarianism

Main article: Geolibertarianism

Geolibertarianism is a political movement that strives to reconcile libertarianism and Georgism (or "geoism").[138][139] The term was coined by Fred Foldvary. Geolibertarians are advocates of geoism, which is the position that all land is a common asset to which all individuals have an equal right to access, and therefore if individuals claim the land as their property they must pay rent to the community for doing so. Rent need not be paid for the mere use of land, but only for the right to exclude others from that land, and for the protection of one's title by government. They simultaneously agree with the libertarian position that each individual has an exclusive right to the fruits of his or her labor as their private property, as opposed to this product being owned collectively by society or the community, and that "one's labor, wages, and the products of labor" should not be taxed. In agreement with traditional libertarians they advocate "full civil liberties, with no crimes unless there are victims who have been invaded." In the voluntary geolibertarianism described by Foldvary, rent would be collected by private associations with the opportunity to secede from a geocommunity if desired.[140]

Influential libertarian philosophers

See also Category:Libertarian theorists

Organizations and movements

See also the categories Libertarian think tanks and Libertarian publications

Numerous socialist groups around the world have labelled themselves as libertarian throughout the twentieth century.[29][145][31] These include revolutionary workers' movements such as the Industrial Workers of the World, the Makhnovist movement in Ukraine during the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the Italian autonomist movement. During the Spanish Civil War the CNT, the FAI and Libertarian Youth (FIJL) played a major role.

In Latin America, the Argentine Libertarian Federation was founded in 1935. Mexico's Zapatista Army (EZLN) is a social movement of indigenous peoples that includes significant libertarian socialist elements and struggles for communal control of land seized in opposition to large-scale ranching oligarchies.[146][failed verification]

In the United States libertarian organisations have included left-wing groups such as the Libertarian League and the Libertarian Book Club. However since the 1950s many American libertarian organizations have adopted a free market, capitalist stance; these include the Center for Libertarian Studies, the Cato Institute, the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE), the International Society for Individual Liberty (ISIL) and the Ludwig von Mises Institute. The activist Free State Project, formed in 2001, works to bring 20,000 libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to influence state policy.[147] Less successful similar projects include the Free West Alliance and Free State Wyoming. There is also a European Free State Project.[148]

The French Liberté chérie ("Cherished Liberty") is a libertarian think-tank and activist association formed in 2003 that drew 30,000 Parisians into the streets to demonstrate against government employees who were striking.[149][150] The Libertarian Society of Iceland (Frjálshyggjufélagið) is the only active propertarian libertarian organization in Iceland.[151]

Libertarian political parties

See: Category:Libertarian parties

Historically libertarians have typically eschewed electoral politics and so formed activist organisations rather than political parties. However since the 1970s a number of pro-free market libertarian parties have been established.

In the United States, the Libertarian Party of the United States was formed in 1972. The Libertarian Party is the third largest[152][153][154] American political party, with over 225,000 registered voters in the 35 states that allow registration as libertarian[155] and has hundreds of party candidates elected or appointed to public office, and has run thousands for office.[156] The political platform of the Libertarian Party reflects its brand of libertarianism, favoring minimally regulated, laissez-faire markets, strong civil liberties, minimally regulated migration across borders, and non-interventionism in foreign policy that respects freedom of trade and travel to all foreign nations and supporting "the right of the people to alter or to abolish it(destructive government), and to agree to such new governance".[157]

The Libertarian Party of Canada attempts to bring together various libertarian movements across Canada. Its platform combines left-wing social policies and right-wing economic policies.[citation needed] The Liberal Democratic Party in Australia is a classical liberal and moderately libertarian Australian political party founded in 2001. Australia also has a small Libertarian Party, but it is not registered with the Australian Electoral Commission.[158] The Libertarianz is a libertarian political party in New Zealand (hence the suffix -nz) that advocates self-government and limits on the power of the government over the individual.

In Germany, a "Libertäre Plattform in der FDP" ("Liberty Caucus within the Free Democratic Party") was founded in 2005. In Norway, The Progress Party (Norway).[159] In the Netherlands the Libertarische Partij. In Greece, the Liberal Alliance Party was founded in 2007. In Malta, Imperium Europa, founded in 2005, is affiliated with the London New Right, and is on the verge of merging with two other minor libertarian parties in the local sphere. The Russian Libertarian Movement (Rossiyskoye Libertarianskoye Dvizhenie, RLD; 2003–2006) was a short-lived political party in the Russian Federation, formed by members of the Institute of Natiology (Moscow), a libertarian think tank.[citation needed] Costa Rica's Movimiento Libertario (Libertarian Movement) is a libertarian party that holds 9% of the seats in Costa Rica's national assembly. Brazil's Partido Libertários is a nascent libertarian party.[160]

See also

References

  1. ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary definition of libertarianism
  2. ^ Roderick T. Long, "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class," Social Philosophy and Policy 15:2 1998, 303-349: 304.
  3. ^ Ronald Hamowy, Editor, The encyclopedia of libertarianism, Sage, 2008, p. 13-15, ISBN 1412965802, 9781412965804.
  4. ^ a b * "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective." Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62
    • Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4
    • MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with Dwight Macdonald. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82
    • Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv
    • Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126
    • Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10)
    • Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183.
    • Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.
  5. ^ "There are two main branches of libertarianism and each has a radical answer to the query. One group, the anarchists…holds that all government is illegitimate. The other group, generally called minarchists, maintains that government may appropriately engage in police protection, enforcement of contracts, and national defense, but that is all.…[Murray N.] Rothbard himself is on the anarchist wing of the movement. Both by his writings and by personal influence, Rothbard is the principal founder of modern libertarianism."The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought(Entry: Libertarianism); Edited by David Miller, Advisory Editors: Janet Coleman, William Connolly, Alan Ryan; Blackwell Publishers, Oxford(UK), Massachusetts(USA); 1987, Revised: 1991. Reprint: 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000; ISBN 0-631-14011-5 ISBN 0-631-17944-5 (pbk)
  6. ^ a b c Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739.
  7. ^ For examples of philosophical literature describing the left/right variations of libertarianism, see:
    • Bevir, Mark. Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 2010. page 811;
    • Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. in addition to the better-known version of libertarianism—right-libertarianism—there is also a version known as 'left-libertarianism' {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help);
    • Christiano, Thomas, and John P. Christman. Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy. Contemporary debates in philosophy, 11. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. page 121;
    • Lawrence C. Becker, Charlotte B. Becker. Encyclopedia of ethics, Volume 3 Encyclopedia of Ethics, Charlotte B. Becker, ISBN , page 1562;
    • Paul, Ellen F. Liberalism: Old and New. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007. page 187; and
    • Sapon, Vladimir; Robino, Sam (2010). "Right and Left Wings in Libertarianism". Canadian Social Science. 5 (6).
    • Roderick T. Long, "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class," Social Philosophy and Policy 15:2 1998, 303-349: 304-308.
  8. ^ a b c d e Chomsky, Noam; Peregrín Otero, Carlos (2003). "Introduction to Chomskys Social Theory by Carlos Peregrin Otero". Radical priorities. AK Press,. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  9. ^ Membership Report prepared 04/12/2004 for cutoff of 03/31/2004, circulated by the LNC. Retrieved May 14, 2007~~~~
  10. ^ David Boaz, Libertarianism: A Primer, Free Press, 1998, 22-25.
  11. ^ William Belsham, "Essays", printed for C. Dilly, 1789; original from the University of Michigan, p. 11, digitized May 21, 2007.
  12. ^ Oxford English Dictionary definition of libertarianism
  13. ^ a b Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas - Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE-1939)], ed. Robert Graham; includes English translations of Joseph Dejacque’s 1857 letter to Proudhon.
  14. ^ “De l'être-humain mâle et femelle–Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque” (in French)
  15. ^ Pelosse, Valentin (1972). Joseph Déjacque and the Neologism Libertarian
  16. ^ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. p. 162.
  17. ^ Russell, Dean (1955). "Who Is A Libertarian?". The Freeman. 5 (5). The Foundation for Economic Education. Retrieved March 6, 2010. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ^ Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservativsm in Europe and beyond," (p. 136-169) in Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century by Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN , The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.
  19. ^ Anthony Gregory, Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism, LewRockwell.com, April 24, 2007.
  20. ^ David Boaz, Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer, reprinted at Cato.org, November 21, 1998.
  21. ^ Radicals for Capitalism (Book Review), New York Post, February 4, 2007.
  22. ^ The Week Online Interviews Chomsky, Z Magazine, February 23, 2002. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. Socialist anarchism was libertarian socialism. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism."
  23. ^ Colin Ward, Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."
  24. ^ Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement, Sharp Press, 2001, p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
  25. ^ Perlin, Terry M. (1979). Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Publishers. p. 40.
  26. ^ Peter Kropotkin, The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793 (Elephant Editions, 1986), vol. 1, pages 204 and 206
  27. ^ Peter Kropotkin, Marshall Shatz, The conquest of bread and other writings, p. xv, Cambridge University Press, 1995 ISBN ,
  28. ^ 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, contributed by Peter Kropotkin.
  29. ^ a b Skirda, Alexandre.Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002, p. 183
  30. ^ Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv.
  31. ^ a b Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of political anarchy, University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126-127.
  32. ^ Godfrey Hodgson, The United States, Volume 2, p. 622, Facts on File, 1992, ISBN0816018308, Hodgson describes this new liberalism as a “pro-state or statist ideology.”
  33. ^ a b "The Achievements of Nineteenth-Century Classical Liberalism". Cato University Home Study Course. Cato Institute. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
  34. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism, excerpted from the first chapter of For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, at LewRockwell.com.
  35. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Life and Death of the Old Right, first published in the September 1990 issue of The Rothbard-Rockwell Report, at LewRockwell.com.
  36. ^ Raimondo Cubeddu, preface to "Perspectives of Libertarianism", Etica e Politica (Università di Trieste) V, no. 2 (2003). "It is often difficult to distinguish between 'Libertarianism' and 'Classical Liberalism.' Those two labels are used almost interchangeably by those whom we may call libertarians of a minarchist persuasion: scholars who, following Locke and Nozick, believe a state is needed in order to achieve effective protection of property rights."
  37. ^ Steffen W. Schmidt, American Government and Politics Today (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2004), 17.
  38. ^ DiLorenzo, Thomas, "Frederic Bastiat (1801–1850): Between the French and Marginalist Revolutions, Ludwig von Mises Institute.
  39. ^ What is Austrian Economics?, Ludwig Von Mises Institute.
  40. ^ Richard M. Ebeling, Austrian Economics and the Political Economy of Freedom, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, 163–179 ISBN , 9781840649406.
  41. ^ Brian Doherty, Ayn Rand at 100: "Yours Is the Glory", Cato Institute Policy Report Vol. XXVII No. 2 (March/April 2005).
  42. ^ a b Jude Blanchette, What Libertarians and Conservatives Say About Each Other: An Annotated Bibliography, LewRockwell.com, October 27, 2004.
  43. ^ Henry J. Silverman, American radical thought: the libertarian tradition, p. 279, 1970, Heath publishing.
  44. ^ Robert Poole, In memoriam: Barry Goldwater – Obituary, Reason Magazine, August–Sept, 1998.
  45. ^ Hess, Karl. The Death of Politics, Interview in Playboy, July 1976.
  46. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Early 1960s: From Right to Left, excerpt from chapter 13 of Murray Rothbard The Betrayal of the American Right, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007.
  47. ^ Ronald Lora, William Henry Longton, Conservative press in 20th-century America, p. 367-374, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN ,
  48. ^ Marc Jason Gilbert, The Vietnam War on campus: other voices, more distant drums, p. 35, 2001, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN0275969096,
  49. ^ Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s, University of California Press, 1999 ISBN , 215–237.
  50. ^ Bill Winter, "1971–2001: The Libertarian Party's 30th Anniversary Year: Remembering the first three decades of America's 'Party of Principle'" LP News
  51. ^ The Libertarian Vote, by David Boaz and David Kirby. Cato Institute policy analysis paper 580, October 18, 2006. The Libertarian Vote
  52. ^ International Society for Individual Liberty Freedom Network list.
  53. ^ David Lewis Schaefer, Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia, The New York Sun, April 30, 2008.
  54. ^ The Advocates Robert Nozick page.
  55. ^ a b c Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Parameter error in {{issn}}: Missing ISSN.. Retrieved March 5, 2010. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  56. ^ a b Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Parameter error in {{issn}}: Missing ISSN.. Retrieved March 5, 2010. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  57. ^ a b "Libertarianism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August, 2, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  58. ^ a b Works describing right-libertarianism as better-known include:
    • Wolff, Johnathan. "Libertarianism." Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 4. Taylor & Francis, 1998. p. 617. Quote: “More typically it is associated with a view which champions particularly pure forms of capitalism.”
    • Stanford Encyclopedia article, quote: "the better-known version of libertarianism—right-libertarianism."
    • Vallentyne, Peter. "Liberalism and the State." Liberalism: Old and New. Eds. Jeffrey Paul and Fred D. Miller. Cambridge University Press, 2007. p. 187. Quote: "The best known form of libertarianism - right-libertarianism..."
    Cite error: The named reference "pop" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  59. ^
  60. ^ Zwolinski, Matt (March 26, 2008). "Libertarianism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
  61. ^ Interview with Milton Friedman. Uncommon Knowledge. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cl_qwo2VIlU&feature=player_embedded#!
  62. ^ Bevir, Mark. Enyclopedia of Political Theory. SAGE, 2010. p. 811
  63. ^ What's Right vs. What Works. Charles Murray, David Friedman, David Boaz, and R.W. Bradford. Liberty. January 2005, Vol 15, No 1
  64. ^ a b Wolff, Jonathan. "Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition" (PDF). Virginia Law Review. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  65. ^ Allen E. Buchanan, Ethics, efficiency, and the market, Rowman & Littlefield, p. 65, 1985 ISBN “In libertarian theories generally, a very broad right to private property, including private ownership of the means of production, is morally fundamental and determines both the most basic principles of individual conduct and the legitimate role of the state.”
  66. ^ Carl H. Botan, Vincent Hazleton, Public relations theory II, p. 262, 2006 ISBN , “Worldwide, libertarianism has been as much the hallmark of media struggles for political and economic independence as it has been for nonmedia enterprises seeking liberalized investment policies; it has also been a rationale for establishing privately owned media.”
  67. ^ David Boaz, Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer, reprinted at Cato.org, November 21, 1998.”The largest trends in the world reflect libertarian values. Communism is virtually gone, and few people still defend state socialism. Eastern Europe is struggling to achieve societies based on property rights, markets, and the rule of law.”
  68. ^ for Capitalism (Book Review), New York Post, February 4, 2007. “Libertarians have helped bring about policy changes such as deregulation, tax cuts, privatization and an end to the military draft and have encouraged market-oriented reforms throughout the world.”
  69. ^ Ronald Hamowy, Editor, The encyclopedia of libertarianism, p. 11, 13, 227, 243,
  70. ^ "150 years of Libertarian". Freedom. Vol. 69, no. 23–4. London. Retrieved 2010-09-21.
  71. ^ Libertarian Party (quoted material?) Libertarians would phase out the current government-sponsored Social Security system. We support the maintenance of a sufficient military to defend the United States. a free market health care system. parents to determine the education of their children, without interference from government. We support repeal of all laws which impede the ability of any person to find employment. We oppose government subsidies to business, labor, or any other special interest. We call for the repeal of the income tax.
  72. ^ Klandermans, Bert, and Conny Roggeband. Handbook of Social Movements Across Disciplines. New York: Springer, 2009. page 130
  73. ^ Frankel, Benjamin. History in Dispute. Detroit: St. James Press, 2000. page 129
  74. ^ Positive and Negative Liberty, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Oct 8, 2007.
  75. ^ Wolff, Jonathan. "Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  76. ^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on "Contractarianism", revised April 4, 2007.
  77. ^ Anthony de Jasay, Hayek: Some Missing Pieces, The Review of Austrian Economics Vol. 9,NO.1 (1996): 107–18, ISSN0889-3047
  78. ^ Hardy Bouillon, Hartmut Kliemt, Ordered Anarchy Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, foreward, ISBN 0-7546-6113-X,
  79. ^ Franks, B. (2003) "Direct action ethic." Anarchist Studies 11:1 pp. 13-41: 24-25.
  80. ^ a b Rothbard, 1980
  81. ^ Kenny Johnsson interviews Lew Rockwell for The Liberal Post Do You Consider Yourself a Libertarian? LewRockwell.com 2007.
  82. ^ Block, Walter. Defending the Undefendable (PDF).
  83. ^ Bevir, 2010: pp. 810-811
  84. ^ Marcus, B.K. BlackCrayon.com: Dictionary: Definition of "minarchism"
  85. ^ a b Gregory, Anthory.The Minarchist's Dilemma. Strike The Root. 10 May 2004.
  86. ^ a b Edward Feser, What Libertarianism Isn't, Lew Rockwell.com, December 22, 2001.
  87. ^ Ralph Raico, Is Libertarianism Amoral?, New Individualist Review, Volume 3, Number 3, Fall 1964, 29–36; republished by Ludwig von Mises Institute, April 4, 2005.
  88. ^ Anthony Gregory, Left, Right, Moderate and Radical, LewRockwell.com, December 21, 2006.
  89. ^ Cathy Young, Enforcing Virtue: Is social stigma a threat to liberty, or is it liberty in action?, review of "Freedom & Virtue: The Conservative Libertarian Debate", Reason, March 2007.
  90. ^ Vance, Laurence (January 29, 2008). "Is Ron Paul Wrong on Abortion?". LewRockwell.com.
  91. ^ Anthony Gregory. What's left of the old right.
  92. ^ Anthony Gregory, A Revolutionary Manifesto
  93. ^ Jørn K. Baltzersen. For Ceremonies and Emergencies. 2006-06-22.
  94. ^ Butler Shaffer. The Death of the American State.
  95. ^ DiLorenzo, Thomas. "Constitutional Futility". LewRockwell.com.
  96. ^ Prof. Will Kymlicka "libertarianism, left-" in Honderich, Ted (2005). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. City: Oxford U Pr, N Y.
  97. ^ a b Vallentyne and Steiner, 2000b: p. 1.
  98. ^ a b Gaus, Gerald F. & Kukathas, Chandran. 2004. Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications Inc. p. 128.
  99. ^ Karl Widerquist, "Libertarianism" International Encyclopedia of Public Policy, Volume 3, Phil O’Hara (Ed.) Oxford: OUP : 338- 350, at 341.
  100. ^ Steve Daskal, Libertarianism Left and Right, the Lockean Proviso, and the Reformed Welfare State, Social Theory and Practice, January 1, 2010 page 1, line 45.
  101. ^ e.g. Faatz, Chris, "Toward[s] a Libertarian Socialism."
  102. ^ Bevir, Mark. Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 2010. page 34.
  103. ^ Phillip Anthony O'Hara, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Political Economy. Routledge. p. 15. Another [propopent] is Noam Chomsky, who generally calls himself a "left libertarian" in his political writings (with a history of opposition to both super-powers during the Cold War). {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |city= ignored (|location= suggested) (help)
  104. ^ Konkin was the founder of agorism, author of the New Libertarian Manifesto, and founder of the Movement of the Libertarian Left
  105. ^ The Alliance of the Libertarian Left "is a multi-tendency coalition of mutualists, agorists, voluntaryists, geolibertarians, left-Rothbardians, green libertarians, dialectical anarchists, radical minarchists, and others on the libertarian left, united by an opposition to statism and militarism, to cultural intolerance (including sexism, racism, and homophobia), and to the prevailing corporatist capitalism falsely called a free market; as well as by an emphasis on education, direct action, and building alternative institutions, rather than on electoral politics, as our chief strategy for achieving liberation."
  106. ^ Long is a well-known writer on left-libertarian zines and blogs. One of his descriptions of the political spectrum is in his article for the Ludwig von Mises Institute entitled Rothbard's "Left and Right": Forty Years Later
  107. ^ Long, Roderick. "url-http://praxeology.net/anticopyright.htm". Molinari Institute. {{cite book}}: External link in |contribution= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  108. ^ See Charles Johnson, "Scratching By: How Government Creates Poverty As We Know It"
  109. ^ Paul Zarembka. Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria. Emerald Group Publishing, 2007. p. 25
  110. ^ Guerin, Daniel. Anarchism: A Matter of Words: " Some contemporary anarchists have tried to clear up the misunderstanding by adopting a more explicit term: they align themselves with libertarian socialism or communism." Faatz, Chris, Towards a Libertarian Socialism.
  111. ^ Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.
  112. ^ Ross, Dr. Jeffery Ian. Controlling State Crime, Transaction Publishers (200) p. 400
  113. ^ Mendes, Silva. Socialismo Libertário ou Anarchismo Vol. 1 (1896): "Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property and liberty by abolition of authority"
  114. ^ Rocker, Rudolf (2004). Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-902593-92-0.
  115. ^ Sims, Franwa (2006). The Anacostia Diaries As It Is. Lulu Press. p. 160.
  116. ^ A Mutualist FAQ: A.4. Are Mutualists Socialists?
  117. ^ Bookchin, Murray. Post-Scarcity Anarchism AK Press (2004) p.xl
  118. ^ Murray Bookchin, Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism; Robert Graham, The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution
  119. ^ Noam Chomsky interviewed by Ziga Vodovnik Anarchism Interview
  120. ^ Peter H Marshall Demanding the impossible: a history of anarchism. HarperCollins 1992, Fontana 1993; republished by PM Press 2010: p 341.
  121. ^ Edward Stringham, Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice, Transaction Publishers, 2007, p. 268, ISBN ,
  122. ^ David D. Friedman, The machinery of freedom: guide to a radical capitalism, Edition 2, Open Court, 1995, p. 19 ISBN ,
  123. ^ Roderick T. Long, Tibor R. Machan, Anarchism/minarchism: is a government part of a free country?, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2008, Preface, ISBN0754660664,
  124. ^ Edward Stringham, Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice, p. 504
  125. ^ Ronald Hamowy, Editor, The encyclopedia of libertarianism, p 10-12, p 195.
  126. ^ Edward Stringham, Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice, p 51
  127. ^ Adams, Ian. 2002. Political Ideology Today. p. 135. Manchester University Press; Ostergaard, Geoffrey. 2003. Anarchism. In W. Outwaite (Ed.), The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. p. 14. Blackwell Publishing
  128. ^ Ronald Hamowy, The encyclopedia of libertarianism, p. 13-15.
  129. ^ Ronald Hamowy, Editor, The encyclopedia of libertarianism, p 195.
  130. ^ Roberta Modugno Crocetta, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism in the contemporary debate. A critical defense, Ludwig Von Mises Institute.
  131. ^ Michael Oliver, 'Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard, originally published in "The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal", February 25, 1972.
  132. ^ Do You Consider Yourself a Libertarian?, Kenny Johnsson interviews Lew Rockwell for The Liberal Post, as posted on LewRockwell.Com, May 25, 2007.
  133. ^ Hughes, James (2001). "Politics of Transhumanism". Retrieved 2007-01-26. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  134. ^ Bailey, Ronald (2005). Liberation Biology: The Scientific And Moral Case For The Biotech Revolution. Prometheus Books.
  135. ^ Barbrook, Richard; Cameron, Andy (2000). "The California Ideology". Retrieved 2007-02-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  136. ^ Borsook, Paulina (2000). Cyberselfish: A Critical Romp Through the Terribly Libertarian Culture of High-Tech. PublicAffairs. ISBN 1-891620-78-9.
  137. ^ Giesen, Klaus-Gerd (2004). "Transhumanisme et génétique humaine". Retrieved 2006-04-26. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  138. ^ Foldvary, Fred E., Geoism and Libertarianism. The Progress Report.
  139. ^ Karen DeCoster, Henry George and the Tariff Question, LewRockwell.com, April 19, 2006.
  140. ^ Fred E. Foldvary, "In the case of geoanarchism," "Land and Liberty," May/June 1981, pp. 53–55.
  141. ^ Burns, Jennifer (2009). Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-19-532487-7. OCLC 313665028. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  142. ^ Brian Doherty, Ayn Rand at 100: "Yours Is the Glory", Cato Institute Policy Report Vol. XXVII No. 2 (March/April 2005).
  143. ^ Miller, David, ed. (1991). Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-17944-5.
  144. ^ Rothbard archives, Lew Rockwell.com
  145. ^ Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv.
  146. ^ Colin Ward, Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction, p.16.
  147. ^ Free State Project Membership Statistics accessed at December 14, 2007
  148. ^ European Free State Project web site.
  149. ^ In Paris, « antistrike » rally to support Prime Minister Mr. Fillon project , Le Monde, 2003.
  150. ^ Andrew Schwartz, An Interview with Sabine Herold on Politics, France, and Freedom, January 12, 2004.
  151. ^ http://www.frjalshyggja.is/?gluggi=texti&nafn=felagid Frjálshyggjufélagið
  152. ^ Raymond A. Smith and Donald P. Haider-Markel, Gay and Lesbian Americans and Political Participation: A Reference Handbook, p. 170, ABC-CLIO, 2002, ISBN 9781576072561, "The Libertarian Party is the third largest political party in the United States."
  153. ^ Elizabeth Hovde, Americans mixed on Obama's big government gamble, OregonLive.com, May 11, 2009.
  154. ^ Gairdner, William D. (2007). The Trouble with Canada: A Citizen Speaks Out. BPS Books. pp. 101–102. ISBN 9780978440220. The first, we would call "libertarianism" today. Libertarians wanted to get all government out of people's lives. This movement is still very much alive today. In fact, in the United States, it is the third largest political party, and ran 125 candidates during the U.S. election of 1988.
  155. ^ "2008 Registration Totals". Ballot-access.org. Retrieved 2010-07-19.
  156. ^ Libertarian Party:Our History, at LP.Org.
  157. ^ "Libertarian Party Platform, 2010", at the Official Website of the Libertarian National Committee.
  158. ^ Australian Electoral Commission register of political parties.
  159. ^ "Ideology and Principles of the Progress Party". {{cite journal}}: |contribution= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  160. ^ http://www.pliber.org

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