Libertarianism

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This article is about the political philosophy. For Libertarian political parties, see Libertarian Party. For other uses, see Libertarianism (disambiguation).
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Libertarianism has been variously defined by sources. Libertarians describe it as a political philosophy that holds individual liberty as the basic moral principle of society. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view. Libertarianism includes diverse beliefs, generally advocating strict limits to hierarchy and power and support for individuals.[1] Left wing libertarianism sides with the individual against the concentrated economic and political power of wealthy individuals and large corporations. [2] By contrast, right wing libertarianism defines the government as the only threat to individual liberty. Left wing libertarianism is often associated with human rights movements (which emphasize human dignity and equality), while right wing libertarianism is often associated with social darwinism (survival of the fittest). [3][4]

Left wing libertarians have described right wing libertarianism as propaganda that provides intellectual cover for increased corporate power and massive inequalities of income and wealth.[5] Under this view, right wing Libertarianism's attack on government power is in fact a veiled attack on the broad diffusion of economic power through universal voting rights. [5] Because of its emphasis on private property rights, right wing libertarianism favors a relatively small proportion of the population that owns most private property and wealth. [5] By contrast, social democracy and left wing libertarianism favor the majority of the population who collectively have more votes but own less property.[5]

Many of the most famous libertarian and proto-libertarian thinkers, including Thomas Jefferson and John Stuart Mill, were noted for their equal suspicion of concentrated political power and concentrated economic power.

Jefferson wrote:[6]

"Experience declares that man is the only animal which devours his own kind, for I can apply no milder term to...the general prey of the rich on the poor."
"I hope we shall crush in its birth the aristocracy of our moneyed corporations, which dare already to challenge our government to a trial of strength and bid defiance to the laws of our country."
"Aristocrats fear the people, and wish to transfer all power to the higher classes of society."
"Merchants have no country. The mere spot they stand on does not constitute so strong an attachment as that from which they draw their gains."

The modern libertarian movement in the United States has in fact largely been funded by a small number of conservative billionaires, who exercise tight control over the "libertarian" institutions that depend on them for funding. [7]

By contrast, right wing libertarian Philosopher Roderick T. Long defines libertarianism as "any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals", whether "voluntary association" takes the form of the free market or of communal co-operatives.[8] According to the The U.S. Libertarian party, libertarianism is the advocacy of a government that is funded voluntarily and limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence.[9] Right wing libertarians often define left-wing libertarianism as socialism or anarchism and attempt to exclude it from the universe of libertarian thought. [10]

Overview

Libertarian schools of thought differ over the degree to which the state should be reduced. Anarchists advocate complete elimination of the state. Minarchists advocate a state which is limited to protecting its citizens from aggression, theft, breach of contract, and fraud. Some libertarians go further, such as by supporting minimal public assistance for the poor.[11] Additionally, some schools are supportive of private property rights in the ownership of unappropriated land and natural resources while others reject such private ownership and often support common ownership instead.[12][13][14] Another distinction can be made among libertarians who support private ownership and public ownership of the means of production; the former generally supporting a capitalist economy, the latter a libertarian socialist economic system. In some parts of the world, the term "libertarianism" is synonymous with anarchism. [15][16][17][18]

Libertarians can broadly be characterized as holding four ethical views: consequentialism, deontological theories, contractarianism, and class-struggle normative beliefs. The main divide is between consequentialist libertarianism—which is support for a large degree of "liberty" because it leads to favorable consequences, such as prosperity or efficiency—and deontological libertarianism (also known as "rights-theorist libertarianism," "natural rights libertarianism," or "libertarian moralism"), which is a philosophy based on belief in moral self-ownership and opposition to "initiation of force" and fraud.[citation needed] Others combine a hybrid of consequentialist and deontologist thinking.[19] Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed, but from contract or mutual agreement,[20][21][22] though this can be seen as reductible to consequentialism or deontologism depending on what grounds contracts are justified. Some Libertarian Socialists with backgrounds influenced by Marxism reject deontological and consequential approaches and use normative class-struggle methodologies rooted in Hegelian thought to justify direct action in pursuit of liberty.[23]

Etymology

The use of the word "libertarian" to describe a set of political positions can be tracked to the French cognate, libertaire, which was coined in 1857 by French anarchist Joseph Déjacque who used the term to distinguish his libertarian communist approach from the mutualism advocated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.[24][25][26] Hence libertarian has been used by some as a synonym for left-wing anarchism since the 1890s.[27]

Libertarian socialists, such as Noam Chomsky and Colin Ward, assert that many still consider the term libertarianism a synonym of anarchism in countries other than the US.[15][16][17]

History

Origins

During the 18th century Age of Enlightenment, "liberal" ideas flourished in Europe and North America; they challenged the rule of monarchs and the church and emphasized reason, science, individual liberty, free markets, consent of the governed and limited government.[28][29] Libertarians of various schools were influenced by classical liberal ideas.[28][30] Words such as liberal and liberty come from the Latin root liber, which means "free."[31] The term libertarian in a metaphysical or philosophical sense was first used by late-Enlightenment free-thinkers to refer to those who believed in free will, as opposed to determinism.[32] The first recorded use was in 1789 by William Belsham in a discussion of free will and in opposition to "necessitarian" (or determinist) views.[33][34]

The first anarchist journal to use the term “libertarian” was La Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Socialand it was published in New York City between 1858 and 1861 by french anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque[35]. "The next recorded use of the term was in Europe, when “libertarian communism” was used at a French regional anarchist Congress at Le Havre (16-22 November, 1880). January the following year saw a French manifesto issued on “Libertarian or Anarchist Communism.” Finally, 1895 saw leading anarchists Sébastien Faure and Louise Michel publish La Libertaire in France."[35]. The word stems from the French word libertaire, and was used to evade the French ban on anarchist publications.[36] In this tradition, the term "libertarianism" in "libertarian socialism" is generally used as a synonym for anarchism, which some say is the original meaning of the term; hence "libertarian socialism" is equivalent to "socialist anarchism" to these scholars.[37][38] In the context of the European socialist movement, libertarian has conventionally been used to describe those who opposed state socialism, such as Mikhail Bakunin. However, the association of socialism with libertarianism predates that of capitalism, and many anti-authoritarians still decry what they see as a mistaken association of capitalism with libertarianism in the United States.[39]

Twentieth century

During the early 20th century modern liberalism in the United States began to take a more statist approach to economic regulation.[40] While conservatism in Europe continued to mean conserving hierarchical class structures through state control of society and the economy, some conservatives in the United States began to refer to conserving traditions of liberty. This was especially true of the Old Right, who opposed the New Deal and U.S. military interventions in World War I and World War II.[41][42] Those who held to the earlier liberal views began to call themselves market liberals, classic liberals or libertarians to distinguish themselves.[43][44] The Austrian School of economics, influenced by Frédéric Bastiat and later by Ludwig von Mises,[45] also had an impact on such libertarians.[46][47]

Beginning in the 1940s, libertarianism in the United States was influenced by Ayn Rand's international bestsellers The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957), and later her books about her philosophy of Objectivism.[48] In 1943 two other women also published influential pro-freedom books: Rose Wilder Lane's The Discovery of Freedom and Isabel Paterson's The God of the Machine.[49]

In the 1950s many with "Old Right" or classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as "libertarian."[50] Arizona United States Senator Barry Goldwater's libertarian-oriented challenge to authority also influenced the libertarian movement,[51] through his book The Conscience of a Conservative and his run for president in 1964.[52] Goldwater's speech writer, Karl Hess, became a leading libertarian writer and activist.[53]

During the 1960s the Vietnam War split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of small-government libertarians, anarchist libertarians, and conservatives.[citation needed] Libertarians opposed to the war, joined the draft resistance and peace movements and began founding their own publications, like Murray Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum[54][55] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance[56] and the Society for Individual Liberty.[57] The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F. Buckley, Jr., in a 1971 New York Times article, attempted to divorce libertarianism from conservatism. He wrote: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded."[49]

In 1971, a small group of Americans led by David Nolan formed the U.S. Libertarian Party.[58] Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, the party has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. By 2006, polls showed that 15 percent of American voters identified themselves as libertarian.[59] Over the years, dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s, and others have been created since then.[60]

Libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[61] According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs, "Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia."[62] Nozick disavowed much of the theory late in life. [63] Academics as well as proponents of the free market perspectives note that free-market libertarianism has been successfully propagated beyond the United States since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties[64][65] and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed worldwide as a free market position.[66][67]

Libertarian philosophies

See also Category:Libertarianism by form.

Libertarianism can be broadly divided into the following four political philosophies. Anarchism is incompatible with geolibertarianism. Left-libertarianism and libertarian socialism are incompatible with right-libertarianism.

Anarchism

Main article: Anarchism

Anarchism has been variously defined by sources. Most often, the term describes the political philosophy which considers the state undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, and instead promotes a stateless society, or anarchy,[68][69] while others have defined it as opposing authority in the conduct of human relations.[70][71][72][73] Anarchists widely disagree on what additional criteria are essential to anarchism. Strains of anarchism have been divided broadly into the categories of social anarchism and individualist anarchism.[74][75] The vast majority of anarchists are social anarchists, with individualist anarchism being primarily a literary phenomenon.[76]

Geolibertarianism

Main articles: Geolibertarianism and Georgism

Geolibertarianism is the political movement that strives to reconcile libertarianism and Georgism (or geoism).[77][78] Geolibertarians are advocates of geoism, which is the position that all land is a common asset to which all individuals have an equal right to access, and therefore if individuals claim the land as their property they must pay rent to the community for doing so. Rent need not be paid for the mere use of land, but only for the right to exclude others from that land, and for the protection of one's title by government.They simultaneously agree with the libertarian position that each individual has an exclusive right to the fruits of his or her labor as their private property, as opposed to this product being owned collectively by society or the community, and that "one's labor, wages, and the products of labor" should not be taxed. As with traditional libertarians they advocate "full civil liberties, with no crimes unless there are victims who have been invaded."[77] Geolibertarians generally advocate distributing the land rent to the community via a land value tax.

Left-libertarianism and libertarian socialism

Main articles: Left-libertarianism and Libertarian socialism

Left-libertarianism is the group of libertarian political philosophies which have an egalitarian view concerning natural resources, holding that it is not legitimate for someone to claim private ownership of such resources to the detriment of others.[79][80][81][82] Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, stateless society without private property in the means of production. The two terms are often used interchangeably.[83][84][85]

Libertarian socialism is opposed to all coercive forms of social organization, and promotes free association in place of government and opposes what it sees as the coercive social relations of capitalism, such as wage labor.[86] The term libertarian socialism is used by some socialists to differentiate their philosophy from state socialism[87][88] or by some as a synonym for left anarchism.[83][84][85] Adherents of libertarian socialism assert that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite.[89] Libertarian socialism also constitutes a tendency of thought that promotes the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of life. Accordingly, libertarian socialists believe that "the exercise of power in any institutionalized form—whether economic, political, religious, or sexual—brutalizes both the wielder of power and the one over whom it is exercised".[90] Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of direct democracy such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade unions and workers' councils.[91]

Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist include most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism,[92] mutualism[93]) as well as autonomism, communalism, participism, some versions of "utopian socialism[94] and individualist anarchism[95][96][97]., and also libertarian Marxist philosophies such as council communism and Luxemburgism.[98]

Right-libertarianism

Main articles: Anarcho-capitalism, Minarchism, Neoliberalism, and Right-libertarianism

Right-libertarianism is the group of libertarian political philosophies which support capitalism.

Anthony Gregory maintains that right-libertarianism can refer to "any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations."[99] Peter Vallentyne writes that libertarianism is not a "right-wing" doctrine in the context of the typical left-right political spectrum; however, he notes that the term right-libertarian has come to be used to describe libertarians with certain views on property rights which can be contrasted against a group of libertarians who are labeled as left-libertarian.[100] Lawrence and Charlotte Becker maintain it most often refers to the political position that because natural resources are originally unowned, they therefore may be appropriated at-will by private parties without the consent of, or owing to, others.[101] Samuel Edward Konkin III defined the term "right-libertarianism" as an "activist, organization, publication or tendency which supports parliamentarianism exclusively as a strategy for reducing or abolishing the state, typically opposes counter-economics, either opposes the Libertarian Party or works to drag it right and prefers coalitions with supposedly 'free-market' conservatives."[102] Anarcho-capitalist views have also been described as a "right wing" form of libertarianism by several authors.[103][104][105]

Philosophers influential to libertarianism

See also Category:Libertarian theorists

Libertarian groups and movements

See also the categories Libertarian think tanks, Libertarian publications, and Libertarian socialist organisations

Since the 1950s, many American libertarian organizations have adopted a free market, capitalist stance; these include the Center for Libertarian Studies, the Cato Institute, the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE), the International Society for Individual Liberty (ISIL) and the Ludwig von Mises Institute. Libertarians are prominent in the Tea Party. The activist Free State Project, formed in 2001, works to bring 20,000 libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to influence state policy.[110] Less successful similar projects include the Free West Alliance and Free State Wyoming.

Numerous socialist and anarchist libertarian groups existed during the twentieth century, like Libertarian League in America, Libertarian Youth in Spain or the Libertarian Socialist Organisation in Australia.[111][112][113] Contemporary examples include the CIB Unicobas union in Italy, Alternative libertaire in France, The Emancipatory Left caucus in The Left party in Germany, Libertarian Communist Organization in France and Argentine Libertarian Federation in Argentine. Scholars have also typified the European "new social movements" as that "'family' of left-libertarian movements in...France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland."[114]

Libertarian political parties

See: Category:Libertarian parties

A number of countries have libertarian parties that run candidates for political office. In the United States, the Libertarian Party of the United States was formed in 1972. The Libertarian Party is the third largest[115][116][117] American political party, with over 225,000 registered voters in the 35 states that allow registration as a libertarian[118] and has hundreds of party candidates elected or appointed to public office, and has run thousands for office.[119] The party believes the answer to America's political problems is freedom, specifically "a free-market economy," "a dedication to civil liberties and personal freedom," and "a foreign policy of non-intervention, peace, and free trade."[120] Australia has a small Libertarian Party, but it is not registered with the Australian Electoral Commission.[121] In the Netherlands there is the Libertarische Partij. Brazil's Partido Libertários is a nascent libertarian party.[122] The Danish Socialist People's Party is one of the political parties considered to be left-libertarian.[123] The Turkish Freedom and Solidarity Party also has used the term "libertarian socialist" to describe its politics.

Criticisms

See main article: Criticism of libertarianism

Criticisms of libertarianism include deontological criticisms and practical criticisms, including criticisms of libertarian positions on economics, the environment, and government decentralization.

See also

References

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  9. ^ Duncan Watts, Understanding American government and politics," p. 246. YEAR, PUBLISHER, LOCATION
  10. ^ Perry de Havilland, The Fallacy of 'Libertarian Socialism'
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  12. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. Both endorse full self-ownership, but they differ with respect to the powers agents have to appropriate unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.). Right-libertarianism holds that typically such resources may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them. Left-libertarianism, by contrast, holds that unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner. It can, for example, require those who claim rights over natural resources to make a payment to others for the value of those rights. This can provide the basis for a kind of egalitarian redistribution {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ Carlos Peregrín Otero. ISBN 978-1902593692. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  14. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. Libertarianism is committed to full self-ownership. A distinction can be made, however, between right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism, depending on the stance taken on how natural resources can be owned {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ a b The Week Online Interviews Chomsky, Z Magazine, February 23, 2002. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. Socialist anarchism was libertarian socialism. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism."
  16. ^ a b Colin Ward, Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."
  17. ^ a b Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement, Sharp Press, 2001, p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
  18. ^ "As is well known, anarchists use the terms “libertarian”, “libertarian socialist” and “libertarian communist” as equivalent to “anarchist” and, similarly, “libertarian socialism” or “libertarian communism” as an alternative for “anarchism.” This is perfectly understandable, as the anarchist goal is freedom, liberty, and the ending of all hierarchical and authoritarian institutions and social relations. Unfortunately, in the United States the term “libertarian” has become, since the 1970s, associated with the right-wing, i.e., supporters of “free-market” capitalism. That defenders of the hierarchy associated with private property seek to associate the term “libertarian” for their authoritarian system is both unfortunate and somewhat unbelievable to any genuine libertarian. Equally unfortunately, thanks to the power of money and the relative small size of the anarchist movement in America, this appropriation of the term has become, to a large extent, the default meaning there. Somewhat ironically, this results in some right-wing “libertarians” complaining that we genuine libertarians have “stolen” their name in order to associate our socialist ideas with it!"The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective. "150 years of Libertarian"
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  36. ^ Wikiquote. Retrieved June 4, 2006.
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  62. ^ The Advocates Robert Nozick page.
  63. ^ The Liberty Scam: Why even Robert Nozick, the philosophical father of libertarianism, gave up on the movement he inspired
  64. ^ Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservativsm in Europe and beyond," (p. 136-169) in Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century by Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN , The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.
  65. ^ Anthony Gregory, Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism, LewRockwell.com, April 24, 2007.
  66. ^ David Boaz, Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer, reprinted at Cato.org, November 21, 1998.
  67. ^ Radicals for Capitalism (Book Review), New York Post, February 4, 2007.
  68. ^ Malatesta, Errico. "Towards Anarchism". MAN!. Los Angeles: International Group of San Francisco. OCLC 3930443. Agrell, Siri (2007-05-14). "Working for The Man". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2008-04-14. "Anarchism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-29. "Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 14. 2005. Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable. The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: Mclaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 59. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2. Johnston, R. (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 0-631-20561-6.
  69. ^ Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.
  70. ^ "The IAF - IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual.""Principles of The International of Anarchist Federations"
  71. ^ "Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations." Emma Goldman. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in Anarchism and Other Essays.
  72. ^ Ward, Colin (1966). "Anarchism as a Theory of Organization". Retrieved 1 March 2010.
  73. ^ Anarchist historian George Woodcock report of Mikhail Bakunin´s anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (pg. 9)...Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."
  74. ^ Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.
  75. ^ Kropotkin, Peter (2002). Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings. Courier Dover Publications. p. 5. ISBN 0-486-41955-X.R.B. Fowler (1972). "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought". Western Political Quarterly. 25 (4). University of Utah: 738–752. doi:10.2307/446800. JSTOR 446800.
  76. ^ Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press, 2002, p. 191.
  77. ^ a b Foldvary, Fred E. Geoism and Libertarianism. The Progress Report
  78. ^ Karen DeCoster, Henry George and the Tariff Question, LewRockwell.com, April 19, 2006.
  79. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  80. ^ Will Kymlicka (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Ted Honderich (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York City: Oxford University Press.
  81. ^ Vallentyne and Steiner (2000b). [Unknown]. [Unknown]. p. 1. ISBN 9780312236991.[unknowns verification needed]
  82. ^ Eric Mack and Gerald F Gauss (2004). "Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism: The Liberty Tradition". In Gerald F. Gaus, Chandran Kukathas (ed.). Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications Inc. pp. 115–131, found at 128. ISBN 9780761967873.
  83. ^ a b Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.
  84. ^ a b Chomsky, Noam and Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739
  85. ^ a b Ross, Dr. Jeffery Ian. Controlling State Crime, Transaction Publishers (200) p. 400
  86. ^ As Noam Chomsky put it, a consistent libertarian "must oppose private ownership of the means of production and the wage slavery, which is a component of this system, as incompatible with the principle that labor must be freely undertaken and under the control of the producer". Chomsky, Noam. Otero, Carlos. Radical Priorities AK Press (2003) p.26
  87. ^ Paul Zarembka. Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria. Emerald Group Publishing, 2007. p. 25
  88. ^ Guerin, Daniel. Anarchism: A Matter of Words: "Some contemporary anarchists have tried to clear up the misunderstanding by adopting a more explicit term: they align themselves with libertarian socialism or communism." Faatz, Chris, Towards a Libertarian Socialism.
  89. ^ Mendes, Silva. Socialismo Libertário ou Anarchismo Vol. 1 (1896): "Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property and liberty by abolition of authority".
  90. ^ Ackelsberg, Martha A. (2005). Free Women of Spain: Anarchism and the Struggle for the Emancipation of Women. AK Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-902593-96-8.
  91. ^ Rocker, Rudolf (2004). Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-902593-92-0.
  92. ^ Sims, Franwa (2006). The Anacostia Diaries As It Is. Lulu Press. p. 160.
  93. ^ A Mutualist FAQ: A.4. Are Mutualists Socialists?
  94. ^ Kent Bromley, in his preface to Peter Kropotkin's book The Conquest of Bread, considered early french utopian socialist Charles Fourier to be the founder of the libertarian branch of socialist thought, as opposed to the authoritarian socialist ideas of Babeuf and Buonarroti."Kropotkin, Peter. The Conquest of Bread, preface by Kent Bromley, New York and London, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1906.
  95. ^ "(Benjamin) Tucker referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism." "An Anarchist FAQby Various Authors
  96. ^ French individualist anarchist Emile Armand shows clearly opposition to capitalism and centralized economies when he said that the individualist anarchist "inwardly he remains refractory -- fatally refractory -- morally, intellectually, economically (The capitalist economy and the directed economy, the speculators and the fabricators of single are equally repugnant to him.)""Anarchist Individualism as a Life and Activity" by Emile Armand
  97. ^ Anarchist Peter Sabatini reports that In the United States "of early to mid-19th century, there appeared an array of communal and "utopian" counterculture groups (including the so-called free love movement). William Godwin's anarchism exerted an ideological influence on some of this, but more so the socialism of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at New Harmony, Indiana during 1825. One member of this commune was Josiah Warren (1798-1874), considered to be the first individualist anarchist"Peter Sabatini. "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"
  98. ^ Murray Bookchin, Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism; Robert Graham, The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution
  99. ^ Anthony Gregory, Left, Right, Moderate and Radical," LewRockwell.com (n.p., Dec. 21, 2006) suggests the following might lead to the "right libertarian" description: an exclusive interest in "economic freedoms," preference for a "conservative lifestyle," endorsement of the view that big business should be seen as "a great victim of the state," favoring a "strong national defense," and sharing the Old Right's "opposition to empire."
  100. ^ Peter Vallentyne, "Libertarianism," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [Stanford University, July 20, 2010]).
  101. ^ Lawrence C. Becker, Charlotte B. Becker. Encyclopedia of ethics, Volume 3. Taylor & Francis US, 2001. p. 1562
  102. ^ Samuel Edward Konkin III, New Libertarian Manifesto, 1983.
  103. ^ Marcellus Andrews, The Political Economy of Hope and Fear: Capitalism and the Black Condition in America, NYU Press, 2001, ISBN 0814706800, 9780814706800 On page 61: "anarcho-capitalist-a right wing libertarian whose faith in private property and unregulated markets is absolute"
  104. ^ David Goodway, Anarchist seeds beneath the snow: left-libertarian thought and British writers from William Morris to Colin Ward, Liverpool University Press, Liverpool University Press, 2006 ISBN 1846310253, 9781846310256 On page 4: describes confusion in definition of libertarianism because of "Anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy"
  105. ^ Saul Newman, The Politics of Postanarchism, Edinburgh University Press, 2010 ISBN 0748634959, 9780748634958 On page 43 : "It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)."
  106. ^ Woodcock identifies him as the leading french individualist anarchist around the time of World War I (pg. 324). George Woodcock. Anarchism: a history of libertarian ideas. pg 324
  107. ^ "...probably, the individualist who unfolds in the most detailed form stirnerist ideas and who has the capacity of having an specific domination, above all between the two world wars, in the milieu of individualist discourse." Xavier Diez. El anarquismo individualista en España (1923-1939). Virus Editorial. Barcelona. 2007
  108. ^ Janet Biehl, Short Biography of Murray Bookchin
  109. ^ Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. 1991. pp. [not given]. ISBN 0-631-17944-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)[author, Chapter title, page, publisher location verification needed]
  110. ^ "Membership Statistics". Free State Project. Retrieved 2007-12-14.
  111. ^ Alexandre Skirda (2002). Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press. p. 183.
  112. ^ Charles Bufe (1992). The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. ??!See Sharp Press. p. iv.
  113. ^ Kathyln Gay, ed. (2006). Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan. pp. 126–127.
  114. ^ David S. Meyer and Lindsey Lupo (2009). "Assessing the Politics of Protest: political science and the study of social movements". Handbook of Social Movements Across Disciplines. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. New York: Springer. p. 130. ISBN 9780387765808. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  115. ^ Raymond A. Smith and Donald P. Haider-Markel (2002). Gay and Lesbian Americans and Political Participation: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 170. ISBN 9781576072561. The Libertarian Party is the third largest political party in the United States.
  116. ^ Elizabeth Hovde (2009-05-11). "Americans mixed on Obama's big government gamble". The Oregonian.
  117. ^ Gairdner, William D. (2007) [1990]. The Trouble with Canada: A Citizen Speaks Out. Toronto, Canada: BPS Books. pp. 101–102. ISBN 9780978440220. The first, we would call "libertarianism" today. Libertarians wanted to get all government out of people's lives. This movement is still very much alive today. In fact, in the United States, it is the third largest political party, and ran 125 candidates during the U.S. election of 1988.
  118. ^ Richard Winger (March 1, 2008). "Early 2008 Registration Totals". Ballot Access News. 23 (11). San Francisco, CA: Richard Winger. Retrieved 2010-07-19.[self-published source?]
  119. ^ "Our History". Our Party. Washington D.C., USA: Libertarian National Committee [USA]. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
  120. ^ "[Introduction]". Issues and Positions: The Libertarian Party on Today's Issues. Washington D.C., USA: Libertarian National Committee [USA]. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
  121. ^ Australian Electoral Commission (2010-11-04). "Current Register of Political Parties". Political Parties and Financial Disclosure. Parkes, ACT, Australia: Australian Electoral Commission.
  122. ^ "Libertários: O Partido da Liberdade" (in Portugese). Retrieved 2011-01-17Fails notability, SPS peacocking {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  123. ^ Frankel, Benjamin. History in Dispute. Detroit: St. James Press, 2000. page 129

Bibliography

  • Bevir, Mark (2010). "Libertarianism". Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. ISBN 9781412958653.
  • Block, Walter (2010) [2006]. "The Non-Aggression Axiom of Libertarianism". In Iulian Tãnase, Bogdan Glãvan (ed.). Building Blocks for Liberty: Critical Essays by Walter Block. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 217–220. ISBN 9781933550916. Originally published Bucharest Romania: Libertas publishing. Reprinted from http://www.lewrockwell.com/ : anti-state, anti-war, pro-market {{cite book}}: External link in |postscript= (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Cohen, G.A. (1995). Self-ownership, Freedom and Equality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Cleveland, Paul (August 1995). "Individual Responsibility and Economic Well-Being". The Freeman: ideas on liberty. Vol. 45, no. 8. [Not peer reviewed] {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Doherty, Brian (2007). Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement. PublicAffairs.
  • Goldberg, Jonah (December 12, 2001). "Freedom Kills: John Walker, Andrew Sullivan, and the libertarian threat. [Opinion.]". National Review Online.
  • Hamowy, Editor, Ronald (2008). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Cato Institute, SAGE. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  • Hospers, John (1971). Libertarianism. Santa Barbara, CA: Reason Press.
  • Hospers, John (1995). "Arguments for Libertarianism". In Harwood, Sterling (ed.) (ed.). Business as Ethical and Business as Usual. Jones and Bartlett Series in Philosophy. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
  • Lester, J.C. (2000). Escape from Leviathan: Liberty, Welfare and Anarchy Reconciled. Basingstoke, UK/New York, USA: Macmillan/St Martin's Press.
  • Machan, Tibor R. (2001-01-01). "Revisiting Anarchism and Government". Libertarian.nl : de Startpagina voor Individuele Vrijheid.
  • Nozick, Robert (1974). Anarchy, state, and utopia. Basic Books. ISBN 9780465097203.
  • Rothbard, Murray (Winter 1980). "Myth and Truth About Libertarianism" (PDF). Modern Age. 24 (1). [Not peer reviewed, a journal of opinion.]{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (2000a). The origins of left-libertarianism: an anthology of historical writings. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780312235918.
  • Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (2000b). Left-libertarianism and its critics: the contemporary debate. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780312236991.
  • Vrousalis, Nicholas (2011). "Libertarian Socialism". Social Theory and Practice 37. 211-226.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)

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