In mathematics, many logarithmicidentities exist. The following is a compilation of the notable of these, many of which are used for computational purposes.
Trivial mathematical identities are relatively simple (for an experienced mathematician), though not necessarily unimportant. Trivial logarithmic identities are:
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By definition, we know that:
,
where and .
Setting ,
we can see that:
. So, substituting these values into the formula, we see that:
, which gets us the first property.
Setting ,
we can see that:
. So, substituting these values into the formula, we see that:
, which gets us the second property.
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Logarithms and exponentials with the same base cancel each other. This is true because logarithms and exponentials are inverse operations—much like the same way multiplication and division are inverse operations, and addition and subtraction are inverse operations.
Both of the above are derived from the following two equations that define a logarithm:
(note that in this explanation, the variables of and may not be referring to the same number)
Looking at the equation , and substituting the value for of
, we get the following equation:
, which gets us the first equation.
Another more rough way to think about it is that ,
and that that "" is .
Looking at the equation
, and substituting the value for of , we get the following equation:
, which gets us the second equation.
Another more rough way to think about it is that ,
and that that something "" is .
Logarithms can be used to make calculations easier. For example, two numbers can be multiplied just by using a logarithm table and adding. These are often known as logarithmic properties, which are documented in the table below.[2] The first three operations below assume that x = bc and/or y = bd, so that logb(x) = c and logb(y) = d. Derivations also use the log definitions x = blogb(x) and x = logb(bx).
because
because
because
because
because
because
Where , , and are positive real numbers and , and and are real numbers.
The laws result from canceling exponentials and the appropriate law of indices. Starting with the first law:
The law for powers exploits another of the laws of indices:
The law relating to quotients then follows:
Similarly, the root law is derived by rewriting the root as a reciprocal power:
Derivations of product, quotient, and power rules[edit]
These are the three main logarithm laws/rules/principles,[3] from which the other properties listed above can be proven. Each of these logarithm properties correspond to their respective exponent law, and their derivations/proofs will hinge on those facts. There are multiple ways to derive/prove each logarithm law – this is just one possible method.
Let , where ,
and let . We want to relate the expressions and . This can be done more easily by rewriting in terms of exponentials, whose properties we already know. Additionally, since we are going to refer to and quite often, we will give them some variable names to make working with them easier: Let , and let .
Rewriting these as exponentials, we see that
From here, we can relate (i.e. ) and (i.e. ) using exponent laws as
To recover the logarithms, we apply to both sides of the equality.
The right side may be simplified using one of the logarithm properties from before: we know that , giving
We now resubstitute the values for and into our equation, so our final expression is only in terms of , , and .
To state the logarithm of a quotient law formally:
Derivation:
Let , where ,
and let .
We want to relate the expressions and . This can be done more easily by rewriting in terms of exponentials, whose properties we already know. Additionally, since we are going to refer to and quite often, we will give them some variable names to make working with them easier: Let , and let .
Rewriting these as exponentials, we see that:
From here, we can relate (i.e. ) and (i.e. ) using exponent laws as
To recover the logarithms, we apply to both sides of the equality.
The right side may be simplified using one of the logarithm properties from before: we know that , giving
We now resubstitute the values for and into our equation, so our final expression is only in terms of , , and .
Let , where , let , and let . For this derivation, we want to simplify the expression . To do this, we begin with the simpler expression . Since we will be using often, we will define it as a new variable: Let .
To more easily manipulate the expression, we rewrite it as an exponential. By definition, , so we have
Similar to the derivations above, we take advantage of another exponent law. In order to have in our final expression, we raise both sides of the equality to the power of :
where we used the exponent law .
To recover the logarithms, we apply to both sides of the equality.
The left side of the equality can be simplified using a logarithm law, which states that .
Substituting in the original value for , rearranging, and simplifying gives
To state the change of base logarithm formula formally:
This identity is useful to evaluate logarithms on calculators. For instance, most calculators have buttons for ln and for log10, but not all calculators have buttons for the logarithm of an arbitrary base.
Let , where Let . Here, and are the two bases we will be using for the logarithms. They cannot be 1, because the logarithm function is not well defined for the base of 1.[citation needed] The number will be what the logarithm is evaluating, so it must be a positive number. Since we will be dealing with the term quite frequently, we define it as a new variable: Let .
To more easily manipulate the expression, it can be rewritten as an exponential.
Applying to both sides of the equality,
Now, using the logarithm of a power property, which states that ,
Isolating , we get the following:
Resubstituting back into the equation,
This completes the proof that .
This formula has several consequences:
where is any permutation of the subscripts 1, ..., n. For example
The following summation/subtraction rule is especially useful in probability theory when one is dealing with a sum of log-probabilities:
because
because
Note that the subtraction identity is not defined if , since the logarithm of zero is not defined. Also note that, when programming, and may have to be switched on the right hand side of the equations if to avoid losing the "1 +" due to rounding errors. Many programming languages have a specific log1p(x) function that calculates without underflow (when is small).
Within this interval, for , the series is conditionally convergent, and for all other values, it is absolutely convergent. For or , the series does not converge to . In these cases, different representations or methods must be used to evaluate the logarithm.
The identities of logarithms can be used to approximate large numbers. Note that logb(a) + logb(c) = logb(ac), where a, b, and c are arbitrary constants. Suppose that one wants to approximate the 44th Mersenne prime, 232,582,657 −1. To get the base-10 logarithm, we would multiply 32,582,657 by log10(2), getting 9,808,357.09543 = 9,808,357 + 0.09543. We can then get 109,808,357 × 100.09543 ≈ 1.25 × 109,808,357.
Similarly, factorials can be approximated by summing the logarithms of the terms.
The complex logarithm is the complex number analogue of the logarithm function. No single valued function on the complex plane can satisfy the normal rules for logarithms. However, a multivalued function can be defined which satisfies most of the identities. It is usual to consider this as a function defined on a Riemann surface. A single valued version, called the principal value of the logarithm, can be defined which is discontinuous on the negative x axis, and is equal to the multivalued version on a single branch cut.
In what follows, a capital first letter is used for the principal value of functions, and the lower case version is used for the multivalued function. The single valued version of definitions and identities is always given first, followed by a separate section for the multiple valued versions.