Sengoku period

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The Sengoku period (Japanese: 戦国時代, Hepburn: Sengoku Jidai, lit.'Warring States period') is the period in Japanese history in which civil wars and social upheavals took place almost continuously in the 15th and 16th centuries. Although the Kyōtoku incident (1454) or Ōnin War (1467) is generally chosen as the Sengoku period's start date, there are many competing historiographies for its end date, ranging from 1568, the date of Oda Nobunaga's march on Kyoto, to the suppression of the Shimabara Rebellion in 1638, deep into what is traditionally considered the Edo period.[1][2] Regardless of the dates chosen, the Sengoku period overlaps substantially with the Muromachi period (1336–1573).

This period was characterized by the overthrow of a superior power by a subordinate one. The Ashikaga shogunate, the de facto central government, declined and the sengoku daimyo (戦国大名, feudal lord of sengoku period), a local power, rose to power. The people rebelled against the feudal lords in revolts known as Ikkō-ikki (一向一揆, Ikkō-shū uprising).[2]

During this period, the traditional master-servant relationship between the lord and his vassals broke down, with the vassals eliminating the lord, internal clan and vassal conflicts over leadership of the lord's family, and frequent rebellion and puppetry by branch families against the lord's family.[3] These events sometimes led to the rise of samurai to the rank of sengoku daimyo. For example, Hōjō Sōun was the first samurai to rise to the rank of sengoku daimyo during this period. Uesugi Kenshin was examples of Shugodai (守護代, deputy Shugo) who became sengoku daimyo by weakening and eliminating the power of their lords.[4][5]

This period was marked by the loosening of samurai culture, with people born into other social strata sometimes making a name for themselves as warriors and thus becoming samurai. One such example is Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a well-known figure who rose from a peasant background to become a samurai, sengoku daimyo, and kampaku (Imperial Regent).[6]

Modern Japan recognizes Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu as the three "Great Unifiers" for their restoration of central government in the country.[7]

Background[edit]

During this period, although the Emperor of Japan was officially the ruler of the state and every lord swore loyalty to him, he was largely a marginalized, ceremonial, and religious figure who delegated power to the shōgun, a noble who was roughly equivalent to a military dictators.

From 1346 to 1358 during the Nanboku-cho period, the Ashikaga shogunate gradually expanded the authority of the Shugo (守護), the local military and police officials established by the Kamakura shogunate, giving the Shugo jurisdiction over land disputes between gokenin (御家人) and allowing the Shugo to receive half of all taxes from the areas they controlled. The Shugo shared their newfound wealth with the local samurai, creating a hierarchical relationship between the Shugo and the samurai, and the first early daimyo (大名, feudal lords), called shugo daimyo (守護大名), appeared.[8]

In 1428, Ashikaga Yoshimochi, the fourth shogun, was ill and the question of his succession arose. Ashikaga Yoshikazu, the 5th shogun, died of illness at the age of 19, so the 6th shogun was chosen from among Yoshimochi's four brothers, and to ensure fairness, a lottery was held. The sixth shogun was Ashikaga Yoshinori. However, he was not educated to be a shogun, and his temperamental and despotic behavior caused resentment, and he was assassinated by Akamatsu Mitsusuke during the Kakitsu Rebellion. This led to instability in the Ashikaga shogunate system. The shogunate gradually lost influence and control over the daimyo.[9][10]

Beginning of the Sengoku period[edit]

Painting depicting a battle during the Ōnin War
19th century ukiyo-e by Utagawa Yoshitora, depicting a battle of the war

The beginning of the Sengoku Period is considered to be the Kyōtoku incident or Ōnin War. The Kyōtoku Incident was a major war in the Kanto region that lasted from 1454 to 1482. The war began when Ashikaga Shigeuji of Kantō kubō (鎌倉公方), the office of the Ashikaga shogunate in charge of the Kanto region, killed Uesugi Noritada of Kantō kanrei (関東管領), Kantō kubō's assistant. The various forces in the Kanto region divided and fought between the Kubō and Kanrei sides, with the Ashikaga shogunate supporting the Kanrei side.[2]

Ashikaga Yoshimasa, the 8th shogun, tried to strengthen the power of the shogun, but his close associates did not follow his instructions, leading to political chaos and increasing social unrest. Since he had no sons, he tried to install his younger brother Ashikaga Yoshimi as the ninth shogun, but when his wife Hino Tomiko gave birth to Ashikaga Yoshihisa, a conflict arose among the shugo daimyo as to whether Yoshimi or Yoshihisa would be the next shogun. The Hatakeyama and Shiba clans were also divided into two opposing factions over succession within their own clans, and Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sōzen, who were father-in-law and son-in-law, were politically at odds with each other.[9][11]

In 1467, these conflicts finally led to the Ōnin War (1467–1477) between the Eastern Army, led by Hosokawa Katsumoto and including Hatakeyama Masanaga, Shiba Yoshitoshi, and Ashikaga Yoshimi, and the Western Army, led by Yamana Sōzen and including Hatakeyama Yoshinari, Shiba Yoshikado, and Ashikaga Yoshihisa. In 1469, the war spread to the provinces, but in 1473, Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sōzen, the leaders of both armies, were died, and in 1477, the war ended when the western lords, including Hatakeyama Yoshinari and Ōuchi Masahiro, withdrew their armies from Kyoto.[9][11]

The war devastated two-thirds of Kyoto, destroying many aristocratic and samurai residences, Shinto shrines, and Buddhist temples, and undermining the authority of the Ashikaga shoguns, greatly reducing their control over the various regions. The war was an event that rippled disarray across Japan.[12] In addition to the military confrontations between separate states, there was also domestic fallout. In contempt of the shogunate, the daimyo who were subjected to remain in Kyoto instead returned to their provinces. Consequentially, some of these daimyo found that their designated retainers or shugodai, representatives of their states appointed in a daimyo’s absence, rose in power either to seize control of the domain or proclaim independence as a separate domain.[13]

Thus began the Sengoku period, a period of civil war in which the daimyo of various regions fought to expand their own power.[9][11] Daimyo who became more powerful as the shogunate's control weakened were called sengoku daimyo (戦国大名), and they often came from shugo daimyo, Shugodai, and kokujin or kunibito (国人, local masters). In other words, sengoku daimyo differed from shugo daimyo in that sengoku daimyo was able to rule the region on his own, without being appointed by the shogun.[8]

Historians most often consider the Ōnin War, a ten-year conflict wrought by political turmoil, to be the trigger for what would come to be known as the Sengoku period. This civil war would clearly exemplify the Ashikaga shogunate’s waned authority over its shogunal administration, the provincial daimyo and Japan as a whole; thereby a wave of unbridled conflict would spread across Japan and consume the states in an age of war. Furthermore, weariness of war, socioeconomic unrest and poor aristocratical treatment invoked the wrath of the peasant class. Farmers, craftsmen, merchants and even villages would organize uprisings (known as “ikki”) against the ruling class. An extraordinary example of this can be observed in the Kaga Rebellion, in which the local ikki had staged a large-scale revolt with the support of the True Pure Land sect (thereby establishing the term ikkō ikki) and assumed control of the entire province of Kaga.[13][14] It is suggested by both scholars and authors that “these succession disputes still might not have led to war were it not for the shōgun’s lack of leadership.”[12][13]

Timeline[edit]

Start and end dates[edit]

Ōzutsu (Big Gun)

The Kyōtoku incident in 1454 or Ōnin War in 1467 is usually considered the starting point of the Sengoku period. There are several events which could be considered the end of it: Nobunaga's entry to Kyoto (1568)[15] or abolition of the Muromachi shogunate (1573)[16] or entry into Azuchi Castle (1576), Hideyoshi's promulgation of the Sōbujirei (ja) law prohibiting war (1587), the siege of Odawara (1590), the Battle of Sekigahara (1600), the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate (1603), the siege of Osaka (1615), or the suppression of the Shimabara Rebellion (1638).[1] The old and well-known theory is that from the beginning of the Onin War in 1467 until 1568, when Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in support of Ashikaga Yoshiaki.[2][17]

However, even if 1568 is the end date of the Sengoku period, there are also various theories about the beginning and end dates of the following Azuchi-Momoyama period. The Azuchi-Momoyama period refers to the period when Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi hideyoshi were in power.[18] They and Tokugawa Ieyasu are the three unifiers of Japan.[7] The name "Azuchi-Momoyama" comes from the fact that Nobunaga's castle, Azuchi Castle, was located in Azuchi, Shiga, and Fushimi Castle, where Hideyoshi lived after his retirement, was located in Momoyama. The beginning date could be either when Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in 1568 to support Ashikaga Yoshiaki, or when Nobunaga expelled Ashikaga Yoshiaki from Kyoto in 1573 and destroyed the Muromachi Shogunate, or when Nobunaga moved to Azuchi Castle in 1576. It ended either when Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in 1598, or at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, or with the opening of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603.[18][2]

Conflict between sengoku daimyo[edit]

Kaga ikki occurred in 1488, Hōjō Sōun conquered Izu province in 1491, and in 1492 Hosokawa Masamoto banished the 10th shogun Ashikaga Yoshitane from Kyoto and installed Ashikaga Yoshizumi as the 11th shogun. Around this time, civil wars began to occur frequently throughout the country, and Buddhist temples in various regions grew as armed forces.[2]

Ashikaga Yoshihisa, who had become the ninth shogun during the Onin War, died at the age of 25, and Ashikaga Yoshitane became the 10th shogun. However, in 1493, Hosokawa Masamoto raised an army while shogun Yoshitane was away in Kyoto and installed the 11th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshizumi, in a de facto coup known as the Meio incident (明応の政変). Masamoto held the position of Kanrei (管領), second only to the shogun in the Ashikaga shogunate, and the equivalent of Shikken (執権) in the Kamakura shogunate. This made the shogun a puppet of the Hosokawa clan, which served as the Kanrei. In recent years, it has been theorized that this incident marked the beginning of the Sengoku period.[19]

Hosokawa Masamoto remained a bachelor for the rest of his life and adopted three people as his heirs. Following the advice of his vassals, Masamoto named Hosokawa Sumimoto as his successor instead of Hosokawa Sumiyuki, who had adopted him first. As a result, Masamoto was killed by Sumiyuki in 1507. This incident is called Eishō no sakuran (永正の錯乱, Eishō delirium). This triggered a struggle for the succession of the Hosokawa clan, which was divided into the Hosokawa Sumimoto faction and the Hosokawa Takakuni faction, and started a war called Ryō Hosokawa War (両細川の乱), which was won by Hosokawa Takakuni.[20]

Hosokawa Takakuni installed Ashikaga Yoshiharu as the 12th shogun. Meanwhile, Hosokawa Harumoto, son of Hosokawa Sumimoto, who had lost the war, collaborated with Miyoshi Motonaga to defeat Takakuni at the Battle of Katsuragawa (桂川の戦い) in 1527 and expel him from Kyoto. The authority of the Kanrei was thus destroyed, and with almost no support for Hosokawa Takakuni, he was forced to move from place to place. He gained the sengoku daimyo Uragami Muramune as an ally and fought Hosokawa Harumoto in a war called Daimotsu kuzure (大物崩れ) in 1531, but was defeated.[20]

Hosokawa Harumoto seized power, but he alienated Miyoshi Motonaga, who was his retainer but still held a strong position of power. Harumoto seduced the Ikkō-shū into a Ikkō-ikki against Motonaga, which resulted in Motonaga's death in 1532.[20]

Gunsmith storefront, Sakai, Osaka

When the Portuguese brought the matchlock gun to Japan in 1543, it was improved and mass-produced in Japan, and a gun called the tanegashima began to be used in wars. With the introduction of guns, a standing army of ashigaru (足軽, foot soldier) became essential to victory in war, making it impossible for small local lords to remain independent, and lands were consolidated under sengoku daimyo with vast territories, and battles between sengoku daimyo became more intense.[17]

In 1546, Hōjō Ujiyasu defeated Uesugi Tomosada at the Siege of Kawagoe Castle, and the Later Hōjō clan established its power in the Kanto region.[2]

Oda Nobunaga[edit]

Japan in the late 16th century
The three unifiers of Japan: from left to right: Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu

During this period, the organized use of large numbers of tanegashima (guns) was essential to winning the war. In order for the daimyo to win the war, they had to secure a large number of gunsmiths and arms dealers, import large quantities of lead, the raw material for bullets, and nitre, the raw material for gunpowder, conduct routine marksmanship training, and secure large quantities of materials for building war positions. It was Oda Nobunaga who did this most successfully.[21] He built Azuchi Castle at a strategic distribution point, brought several gunsmithing centers under his control, and established friendly relations with the Portuguese and merchants in Sakai, which had become an international port. He examined the rice yields of the lands under his control and did not allow his retainers to take private ownership of the lands, leaving the management of the lands to his retainers. This made it possible to efficiently change territories according to the performance of the vassals, thus eliminating land disputes. In addition, he made it possible to form a standing army by assigning military service to each region according to rice production. He encouraged the economic activities of the common people. In this way, he rapidly increased his power.[22][23][24]

In and around the Kinai, the most politically important region in Japan, Oda Nobunaga allied with Tokugawa Ieyasu to increase his power. Nobunaga defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto at the Battle of Okehazama in 1560 and moved to Kyoto in 1568 to support the 15th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki. Nobunaga defeated Miyoshi Yoshitsugu in 1569, laid siege to Mount Hiei in 1571, defeated Asakura Yoshikage at the Siege of Ichijōdani Castle in 1573, defeated Asai Nagamasa at the Siege of Odani Castle in the same year, and expelled Ashikaga Yoshiaki from Kyoto in 1573, thus destroying the Ashikaga shogunate. He overpowered the Nagashima ikko ikki in 1574, defeated Takeda Katsuyori at the Battle of Nagashino in 1575, and defeated Ishiyama Hongan-ji in the Ishiyama Hongan-ji War in 1580. However, he was betrayed by his vassal Akechi Mitsuhide, who drove him to suicide in the Honnō-ji Incident of 1582.[2][25]

At the same time, the Mōri clan overthrew the Ouchi clan in the Chūgoku region, and the Shimazu and Otomo clans became major powers in Kyushu. In this way, regional unification was promoted.[2]

Toyotomi (Hashiba) Hideyoshi[edit]

Though a peasant by birth, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had risen through the ranks of ashigaru (足軽, foot soldier), samurai, and sengoku daimyo under Nobunaga to become the most capable general of them all. When he learned that his lord Nobunaga had been effectively killed by Akechi Mitsuhide, he immediately made peace with the Mōri clan, who were in the midst of a battle, and turned his army back faster than anyone could have predicted, defeating Akechi Mitsuhide at the Battle of Yamazaki. Hideyoshi avenged his lord's death only 11 days after Nobunaga's death. The men who had been Nobunaga's chief vassals discussed future policy at the Kiyosu Conference, and Hideyoshi began his path to becoming Nobunaga's successor. In 1582, Hideyoshi defeated Shibata Katsuie and Oda Nobutaka, who had been enemies over Nobunaga's succession, at the Battle of Shizugatake, and in 1583 he began construction of Osaka Castle. In 1584, he fought bitterly against the allied forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu and Oda Nobuo at the Battle of Komaki and Nagakute, but was able to make a truce with Nobuo by making peace with him. In 1585, he defeated Chōsokabe Motochika in an Invasion of Shikoku and pacified Shikoku. In 1586, he became Kampaku (関白, Imperial Regent) and Daijō-daijin (太政大臣, Chancellor of the Realm) for the first time in history, although he was not a native-born aristocrat. In 1586, he also succeeded in getting Ieyasu to swear allegiance to him. In 1587 he defeated the Shimazu clan in a Kyūshū campaign, and in 1590 he defeated the Lster Hōjō clan in the Siege of Odawara. In the same year, he forced the clans of Ōshū to swear allegiance to him and finally achieved the unification of Japan.[26][27]

Time line[edit]

Time Event
1454 Beginning of Kyōtoku incident
1467 Beginning of Ōnin War
1477 End of Ōnin War. The effective independence of the Iga ikki is noted
1485 The Yamashiro uprising results in the formation of the Yamashiro ikki
1487 Battle of Magari: Rokkaku Takayori, assisted by ninjas from the Iga and Kōka ikkis, defeats Ashikaga Yoshihisa
1488 The Kaga Rebellion establishes the Kaga ikki
1493 Hosokawa Masamoto succeeds in the Coup of Meio
Hōjō Sōun seizes Izu Province
The Ashikaga shogunate destroys the Yamashiro ikki
1507 Beginning of the Ryo Hosokawa War (the succession dispute in the Hosokawa family)
1520 Hosokawa Takakuni defeats Hosokawa Sumimoto
1523 China suspends all trade relations with Japan due to the conflict
1531 Hosokawa Harumoto defeats Hosokawa Takakuni
1535 Battle of Idano The forces of the Matsudaira defeat the rebel Masatoyo
1543 The Portuguese land on Tanegashima, becoming the first Europeans to arrive in Japan, and introduce the arquebus into Japanese warfare
1546 Siege of Kawagoe Castle: Hojo Ujiyasu defeats the Uesugi clan and becomes ruler of the Kanto Region
1549 Miyoshi Nagayoshi betrays Hosokawa Harumoto
Japan officially ends its recognition of China's regional hegemony and cancels any further tribute missions
1551 Tainei-ji incident: Sue Harukata betrays Ōuchi Yoshitaka, taking control of western Honshu
1554 The tripartite pact among Takeda, Hōjō and Imagawa is signed
1555 Battle of Itsukushima: Mōri Motonari defeats Sue Harukata and goes on to supplant the Ōuchi as the foremost daimyo of western Honshu
1560 Battle of Okehazama: The outnumbered Oda Nobunaga defeats and kills Imagawa Yoshimoto in a surprise attack
1561 Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima: The legendary battle between Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin
Portuguese vessels bombard Moji at the request of Otomo Sorin, who fails to take it in a siege.
1562 Omura Sumitada converted to Christianity, becoming the first Japanese lord to do so.
1565 Portuguese and Japanese vessels belonging to the Matsura clan clash at the Battle of Fukuda Bay.
1568 Oda Nobunaga marches toward Kyoto forcing Matsunaga Danjo Hisahide to relinquish control of the city
1570 Battle of Anegawa and the beginning of the Ishiyama Hongan-ji War
1571 Nagasaki is established as a trade port for Portuguese merchants, with authorization of daimyo Ōmura Sumitada
1573 The end of the Ashikaga shogunate
1574 The Rokkaku clan and Kōka ikki surrender to Oda Nobunaga
1575 Battle of Nagashino: Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu decisively defeat the Takeda clan cavalry with innovative arquebus tactics
1577 Battle of Tedorigawa: The epic battle between Uesugi Kenshin against Oda Nobunaga
1580 End of the Ishiyama Hongan-ji War. Oda Nobunaga unifies central Japan under his rule
1581 The Tenshō Iga War ends with the destruction of the Iga ikki.
1582 Akechi Mitsuhide assassinates Oda Nobunaga in the Honnō-ji Incident; Hashiba Hideyoshi defeats Akechi at the Battle of Yamazaki
1583 Chosokabe Motochika extends his power to all of Shikoku island
1584 Shimazu Yoshihisa succeeds in controlling the entire Kyushu region
1585 Hashiba Hideyoshi is granted the title of Kampaku, establishing his predominant authority; he is granted the surname Toyotomi a year after.
1587 Toyotomi Hideyoshi announces the first anti-Christian edict.
1590 Siege of Odawara: Toyotomi Hideyoshi defeats the Hōjō clan
1591 Kunohe rebellion: Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu defeat the forces of Kunohe Masazane, unifying Japan under the rule of Toyotomi Hideyoshi
1592 First invasion of Korea
1597 Second invasion of Korea
1598 Toyotomi Hideyoshi dies
1600 Battle of Sekigahara: The Eastern Army under Tokugawa Ieyasu defeats the Western Army of Toyotomi loyalists
1603 Rokugō Rebellion: Satake clan under Satake Yoshinobu takes full control of Kubota Domain
1603 Tokugawa Ieyasu unifies all of Japan under his rule and establishes the Tokugawa shogunate
1609 Invasion of Ruuchuu: The Ruuchuu Kingdom becomes a vassal state under the Satsuma Domain of Japan
1614 Catholicism is officially banned and all missionaries are ordered to leave the country
1615 Siege of Osaka: The last of the Toyotomi opposition to the Tokugawa shogunate is stamped out

Gekokujō[edit]

Japan in 1570

The upheaval resulted in the further weakening of central authority, and throughout Japan, regional lords, called daimyōs, rose to fill the vacuum. In the course of this power shift, well-established clans such as the Takeda and the Imagawa, who had ruled under the authority of both the Kamakura and Muromachi bakufu, were able to expand their spheres of influence. There were many, however, whose positions eroded and were eventually usurped by more capable underlings. This phenomenon of social meritocracy, in which capable subordinates rejected the status quo and forcefully overthrew an emancipated aristocracy, became known as gekokujō (下克上), which means "low conquers high".[28]

One of the earliest instances of this was Hōjō Sōun, who rose from relatively humble origins and eventually seized power in Izu Province in 1493. Building on the accomplishments of Sōun, the Hōjō clan remained a major power in the Kantō region until its subjugation by Toyotomi Hideyoshi late in the Sengoku period. Other notable examples include the supplanting of the Hosokawa clan by the Miyoshi, the Toki by the Saitō, and the Shiba clan by the Oda clan, which was in turn replaced by its underling, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a son of a peasant with no family name.[citation needed]

Well-organized religious groups also gained political power at this time by uniting farmers in resistance and rebellion against the rule of the daimyōs. The monks of the Buddhist True Pure Land sect formed numerous Ikkō-ikki, the most successful of which, in Kaga Province, remained independent for nearly 100 years.[citation needed]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ a b Akio Tsunoda (19 November 2020). 最長で200年説も!戦国時代とはいつからいつまでを指すのか?諸説をまとめました (in Japanese). Shōgakukan. Archived from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i 戦国時代 (in Japanese). Japan Knowledge. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  3. ^ 意外と知らない「下剋上」とは一体何か?戦国時代の「主殺し」の実像 3/4 (in Japanese). Kodansha. 18 June 2021. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
  4. ^ 意外と知らない「下剋上」とは一体何か?戦国時代の「主殺し」の実像 4/4 (in Japanese). Kodansha. 18 June 2021. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
  5. ^ 守護大名と戦国武将の違い (in Japanese). The Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  6. ^ 豊臣秀吉はなぜ「征夷大将軍」ではなく「関白」になったのか――秀吉をめぐる「三つのなぜ」 (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun. 24 September 2023. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  7. ^ a b "The 3 Unifiers of Japan". Denver Art Museum. 12 May 2016. Archived from the original on 27 February 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
  8. ^ a b 守護大名と戦国武将 (in Japanese). The Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  9. ^ a b c d 応仁・文明の乱 (in Japanese). Kyoto City. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  10. ^ 嘉吉の乱 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  11. ^ a b c 応仁の乱 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  12. ^ a b Streich, Philip. "Ōnin War (1467–1477)." Japan at War: An Encyclopedia, edited by Louis G. Perez, ABC-CLIO, 2013, pp. 296-297. Gale eBooks, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX2789100191/GVRL?u=psucic&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=56a79408. Accessed 21 Mar. 2023.
  13. ^ a b c Streich, Philip. "Civil Wars, Sengoku Era (1467–1570)." Japan at War: An Encyclopedia, edited by Louis G. Perez, ABC-CLIO, 2013, pp. 53-55. Gale eBooks, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX2789100045/GVRL?u=psucic&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=3f87bd69. Accessed 21 Mar. 2023.
  14. ^ Thornton, Sybil. "Ikkō Ikki." Japan at War: An Encyclopedia, edited by Louis G. Perez, ABC-CLIO, 2013, pp. 138-140. Gale eBooks, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX2789100096/GVRL?u=psucic&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=b19f37eb. Accessed 21 Mar. 2023.
  15. ^ Mypaedia 1996.
  16. ^ Hōfu-shi Rekishi Yōgo-shū.
  17. ^ a b 戦国時代(日本) (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  18. ^ a b 安土桃山時代 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 25 December 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
  19. ^ 明応の政変 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  20. ^ a b c 大物崩れ (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  21. ^ なぜ武田、北条、今川はダメだったのか…小さな戦国大名・織田信長を「天下人」に導いた3つの要素 2/5 (in Japanese). President Online. 26 June 2022. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  22. ^ なぜ武田、北条、今川はダメだったのか…小さな戦国大名・織田信長を「天下人」に導いた3つの要素 3/5 (in Japanese). President Online. 26 June 2022. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  23. ^ なぜ武田、北条、今川はダメだったのか…小さな戦国大名・織田信長を「天下人」に導いた3つの要素 4/5 (in Japanese). President Online. 26 June 2022. Archived from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  24. ^ なぜ武田、北条、今川はダメだったのか…小さな戦国大名・織田信長を「天下人」に導いた3つの要素 5/5 (in Japanese). President Online. 26 June 2022. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  25. ^ 織田信長 (in Japanese). Japan Knowledge. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  26. ^ 豊臣秀吉 (in Japanese). Japan Knowledge. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  27. ^ 豊臣秀吉 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  28. ^ "Sengoku period". Encyclopedia of Japan. Tokyo: Shogakukan. 2012. OCLC 56431036. Archived from the original on 2007-08-25. Retrieved 2012-08-15.

References[edit]

External links[edit]

Preceded by History of Japan
Sengoku period

1467–1573
(of Muromachi Period)
Succeeded by